Vitamin D and Cardiovascular Disease
Nutrients 2013, 5, 3005-3021; doi:10.3390/nu5083005
Katharina Kienreich Andreas Tomaschitz 2'3, Nicolas Verheyen 3, Thomas Pieber 1, Martin Gaksch 1, Martin R. Griibler 1 and Stefan Pilz 1,4
1 Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Medical University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria; E-Mails: thomas.pieber@medunigraz.at (T.P.); martin.gaksch@medunigraz.at (M.G.); martin.gruebler@stud.medunigraz.at (M.R.G.); stefan.pilz@chello.at (S.P.)
2 Specialist Clinic Bad Aussee, 8990 Bad Aussee, Austria; E-Mail: andreas.tomaschitz@gmx.at
3 Department of Cardiology, Medical University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria; E-Mail: nicolas.verheyen@medunigraz.at
4 Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, EMGO Institute for Health and Care Research, VU University Medical Center, 1081 BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands
* Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: katharina.kienreich@medunigraz.at; Tel.: +43-385-82383; Fax: +43-385-13428.
Vitamin D deficiency, as well as cardiovascular diseases (CVD) and related risk factors are highly prevalent worldwide and frequently co-occur. Vitamin D has long been known to be an essential part of bone metabolism, although recent evidence suggests that vitamin D plays a key role in the pathophysiology of other diseases, including CVD, as well. In this review, we aim to summarize the most recent data on the involvement of vitamin D deficiency in the development of major cardiovascular risk factors: hypertension, obesity and dyslipidemia, type 2 diabetes, chronic kidney disease and endothelial dysfunction. In addition, we outline the most recent observational, as well as interventional data on the influence of vitamin D on CVD. Since it is still an unresolved issue whether vitamin D deficiency is causally involved in the pathogenesis of CVD, data from randomized controlled trials (RCTs) designed to assess the impact of vitamin D supplementation on cardiovascular outcomes are awaited with anticipation. At present, we can only conclude that vitamin D deficiency is an independent cardiovascular risk factor, but whether vitamin D supplementation can significantly improve cardiovascular outcomes is still largely unknown.
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