Vitamin D deficiency in childhood - old lessons and current challenges – Feb 2018

Journal of Pediatric Endocrinology and Metabolism, 31(3), 247-260, 2018, https://doi.org/10.1515/jpem-2017-0391
Roberto Antonucci - University of Sassari
Cristian Locci - University of Sassari
Maria Grazia Clemente - University of Sassari mgclemente@uniss.it
Elena Chicconi - University of Sassari
Luca Antonucci - Academic Department of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital Bambino Gesù, University of Rome "Tor Vergata", Rome, Italy.

VitaminDWiki

Infant-Child category starts with

Having a good level of vitamin D cuts in half the amount of:

Need even more IUs of vitamin D to get a good level if;

  • Have little vitamin D: premie, twin, mother did not get much sun access
  • Get little vitamin D: dark skin, little access to sun
  • Vitamin D is consumed faster than normal due to sickness
  • Older (need at least 100 IU/kilogram, far more if obese)
  • Not get any vitamin D from formula (breast fed) or (fortified) milk
    Note – formula does not even provide 400 IU of vitamin D daily

Infants-Children need Vitamin D

 Download the PDF from Sci-Hub via VitaminDWiki

Table 2: Pediatric groups at-risk for vitamin D deficiency.

Image

Table 3: Selected recent studies investigating the association between vitamin D status and various extra-skeletal disorders in childhood

Image

References

  1. Wolf G. The discovery of vitamin D: the contribution of Adolf Windaus. J Nutrition 2004;134:1299-302.
  2. Zittermann A, Gummert JF. Nonclassical vitamin D action. Nutrients 2010;2:408-25.
  3. Ahmed SF, Franey C, McDevitt H, Somerville L, Butler S, et al. Recent trends and clinical features of childhood vitamin D deficiency presenting to a children’s hospital in Glasgow. Arch Dis Child 2011;96:694-6.
  4. Saraf R, Morton SM, Camargo CA Jr, Grant CC. Global summary of maternal and newborn vitamin D status - a systematic review. Matern Child Nutr 2016;12:647-68.
  5. Kiess W, Bae YJ, Penke M, Geserick M, Kratzsch J. Vitamin D in health and disease: the global threat of vitamin D deficient rickets. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 2016;29:391-3.
  6. Norman AW. From vitamin D to hormone D: fundamentals of the vitamin D endocrine system essential for good health. Am J Clin Nutr 2008;88:491S-9S.
  7. Hewison M, Burke F, Evans KN, Lammas DA. Extra-renal 25-hydroxyvitamin D3-1alphahydroxylase in human health and disease. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2007;103:316-21.
  8. Veldman CM, Cantorna MT, De Luca HF. Expression of 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D(3) receptor in the immune system. Arch Biochem Biophys 2000;374:334-8.
  9. Rochel N, Molnar F. Structural aspects of vitamin D endocrinology. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2017;453:22-35.
  10. Jurutka PW, Whitfield GK, Hsieh JC, Thompson PD, Haussler CA, et al. Molecular nature of the vitamin D receptor and its role in regulation of gene expression. Rev Endocr Metab Disord 2001;2:203-16.
  11. Hossein-nezhad A, Spira A, Holick MF. Influence of vitamin D status and vitamin D3 supplementation on genome wide expression of white blood cells: a randomized double-blind clinical trial. PLoS One 2013;8:e58725.
  12. Lemire JM, Archer DC, Beck L, Spiegelberg HL. Immunosuppressive actions of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3: preferential inhibition of Th1 functions. J Nutrition 1995;125(6 Suppl):1704S-8S.
  13. Zhang Y, Leung DY, Richers BN, Liu Y, Remigio LK, et al. Vitamin D inhibits monocyte/macrophage proinflammatory cytokine production by targeting MAPK phosphatase-1. J Immunol 2012;188:2127-35.
  14. Yu XP, Bellido T, Manolagas SC. Down-regulation of NF-kappa B protein levels in activated human lymphocytes by 1,25- dihydroxyvitamin D3. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1995;92:10990-4.
  15. Sadeghi K, Wessner B, Laggner U, Ploder M, Tamandl D, et al. Vitamin D3 down-regulates monocyte TLR expression and triggers hyporesponsiveness to pathogen-associated molecular patterns. Eur J Immunology 2006;36:361-70.
  16. D‘Ambrosio D, Iellem A, Bonecchi R, Mazzeo D, Sozzani S, et al. Selective up-regulation of chemokine receptors CCR4 and CCR8 upon activation of polarized human type 2 Th cells. Immunology 1998;161:5111-5.
  17. Wobke TK, Sorg BL, Steinhilber D. Vitamin D in inflammatory diseases. Front Physiol 2014;5:244.
  18. Matheu V, Back O, Mondoc E, Issazadeh-Navikas SJ. Dual effects of vitamin D-induced alteration of TH1/TH2 cytokine expression: enhancing IgE production and decreasing airway eosinophilia in murine allergic airway disease. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2003;112:585-92.
  19. Chang JH, Cha HR, Lee DS, Seo KY, Kweon MN. 1,25-Dihydroxy- vitamin D3 inhibits the differentiation and migration of T(H)17 cells to protect against experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. PLoS One 2010;5:e12925.
  20. Kerley CP, Elnazir B, Faul J, Cormican L. Vitamin D as an adjunctive therapy in asthma. Part 1: a review of potential mechanisms. Pulm Pharmacol Ther 2015;32:75-92.
  21. Penna G, Roncari A, Amuchastegui S, Daniel KC, Berti E, et al. Expression of the inhibitory receptor ILT3 on dendritic cells is dispensable for induction of CD4 + Foxp3+ regulatory T cells by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. Blood 2005;106:3490-7.
  22. Morales-Tirado V, Wichlan DG, Leimig TE, Street SE, Kasow KA, et al. 1a,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (vitamin D3) catalyzes suppressive activity on human natural regulatory T cells, uniquely modulates cell cycle progression, and augments FOXP3. Clin Immunol 2011;138:212-21.
  23. Chen S, Sims GP, Chen XX, Gu YY, Chen S, et al. Modulatory effects of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 on human B cell differentiation. J Immunol 2007;179:1634-47.
  24. Heine G, Anton K, Henz BM, Worm M. 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvita- min D3 inhibits anti-CD40 plus IL-4-mediated IgE production in vitro. European J Immunol 2002;32:3395-404.
  25. Damera G, Fogle HW, Lim P, Goncharova EA, Zhao H, et al. Vitamin D inhibits growth of human airway smooth muscle cells through growth factor-induced phosphorylation of retinoblastoma protein and checkpoint kinase 1. Brit J Pharmacol 2009;158:1429-41.
  26. Bosse Y, Maghni K, Hudson TJ. 1alpha, 25-dihydroxy-vitamin D3 stimulation of bronchial smooth muscle cells induces autocrine, contractility, and remodeling processes. Physiol Genomics 2007;29:161-8.
  27. Banerjee A, Damera G, Bhandare R, Gu S, Lopez-Boado Y, et al. Vitamin D and glucocorticoids differentially modulate chemokine expression in human airway smooth muscle cells. Brit J Pharmacol 2008;155:84-92.
  28. Song Y, Qi H, Wu C. Effect of 1,25-(OH)2D3 (a vitamin D analogue) on passively sensitized human airway smooth muscle cells. Respirology 2007;12:486-94.
  29. Van Etten E, Mathieu C. ImmunoFregulation by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3: basic concepts. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2005;97:93-101.
  30. Underwood MA, Bevins CL. Defensin-barbed innate immunity: clinical associations in the pediatric population. Pediatrics 2010;125:1237-47.
  31. Di Rosa M, Malaguarnera M, Nicoletti F, Malaguarnera L. Vitamin D3: a helpful immuno-modulator. Immunology 2011;134:123-39.
  32. Wagner CL, Greer FR, American Academy of Pediatrics Section on Breastfeeding, American Academy of Pediatrics Committee
  33. on Nutrition. Prevention of rickets and vitamin D deficiency in infants, children, and adolescents. Pediatrics 2008; 122:1142-52.
  34. Hollis BW, Wagner CL. Vitamin D requirements during lactation: high-dose maternal supplementation as therapy to prevent hypovitaminosis D for both the mother and the nursing infant. Am J Clin Nutr 2004;80(Suppl 6):1752S-8S.
  35. Commission directive 2006/141/EC of 22 December 2006 on infant formulae and follow-on formulae and amending Directive 1999/21/EC. Official Journal of the European Union. 2006. Available at: www.fsai.ie/uploadedFiles/Dir2006_141.pdf. [Accessed 2017 May 02].
  36. Hossein-nezhad A, Holick MF. Vitamin D for health: a global perspective. Mayo Clin Proc 2013;88:720-55.
  37. Munns C, Zacharin MR, Rodda CP, Batch JA, Morley R, et al. Prevention and treatment of infant and childhood vitamin D deficiency in Australia and New Zealand: a consensus statement. Med J Aust 2006;185:268-72.
  38. Clemens TL, Adams JS, Henderson SL, Holick MF. Increased skin pigment reduces the capacity of skin to synthesise vitamin D3. Lancet 1982;1:74-6.
  39. Matsuoka LY, Ide L, Wortsman J, MacLaughlin JA, Holick MF. Sunscreens suppress cutaneous vitamin D3 synthesis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1987;64:1165-8.
  40. Wacker M, Holick MF. Sunlight and vitamin D: a global perspective for health. Dermato-endocrinol 2013;5:51-108.
  41. Absoud M, Cummins C, Lim MJ, Wassmer E, Shaw N. Prevalence and predictors of vitamin D insufficiency in children: a Great Britain population based study. PLoS One 2011;6:e22179.
  42. Dong Y, Pollock N, Stallmann-Jorgensen IS, Gutin B, Lan L, et al. Low 25 hydroxyvitamin D levels in adolescents: race, season, adiposity, physical activity, and fitness. Pediatrics 2010;125:1104-11.
  43. Gonzalez-Gross M, Valtuena J, Breidenassel C, Stehle P. Vitamin D status among adolescents in Europe: the healthy lifestyle in Europe by nutrition in adolescence study. Brit J Nutr 2012;107:755-64.
  44. Kim SH, Oh MK, Namgung R, Park MJ. Prevalence of 25- hydroxyvitamin D deficiency in Korean adolescents: association with age, season and parental vitamin D status. Pub Health Nutr 2014;17:122-30.
  45. Maguire JL, Birken CS, Khovratovich M, Degroot J, Carsley S, et al. Modifiable determinants of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D status in early childhood: opportunities for prevention. JAMA Pediatr 2013;167:230-5.
  46. Mansbach JM, Ginde AA, Camargo CA Jr. Serum 25- hydroxyvitamin D levels among US children aged 1-11 years: do children need more vitamin D? Pediatrics 2009;124: 1404-10.
  47. Poopedi MA, Norris SA, Pettifor JM. Factors influencing the vitamin D status of 10-years-old urban South African children. Pub Health Nutr 2011;14:334-9.
  48. Santos BR, Mascarenhas LP, Satler F, Boguszewski MC, Spritzer PM. Vitamin D deficiency in girls from South Brazil: a crosssectional study on prevalence and association with vitamin D receptor gene variants. BMC Pediatr 2012;12:1-7.
  49. Vierucci F, Del Pistoia M, Fanos M, Gori M, Carlone G, et al. Vitamin D status and predictors of hypovitaminosis D in Italian children and adolescents: a cross-sectional study. Eur J Pediatr 2013;172:1607-17.
  50. Ward LM, Gaboury I, Ladhani M, Zlotkin S. Vitamin D-deficiency rickets among children in Canada. Canadian Med Assoc J 2007;177 161-6.
  51. Callaghan AL, Moy RJ, Booth IW, Debelle G, Shaw NJ. Incidence of symptomatic vitamin D deficiency. Arch Dis Child 2006;91 606-7.
  52. Beck-Nielsen SS, Brock-Jacobsen B, Gram J, Brixen K, Jensen TK. Incidence and prevalence of nutritional and hereditary rickets in southern Denmark. Eur J Endocrinol 2009;160:491-7.
  53. Baroncelli GI, Vierucci F, Bertelloni S, Vanacore T, Vierucci G. Apporti consigliati di vitamina D: un “ritorno al passato”. Medico e Bambino 2010;29:237-45.
  54. D’Eufemia P, Parisi P, Celli M, Finocchiaro R, Roggini M, et al. Vitamin D deficiency rickets in five “at-risk” children. Pediatr Inter 2012;54:152-5.
  55. Cadario F, Savastio S, Pozzi E, Capelli A, Dondi E, et al. Vitamin D status in cord blood and newborns: ethnic differences. Ital J Pediatr 2013;39:35.
  56. Cadario F, Savastio S, Magnani C, Cena T, Pagliardini V, et al. High prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in native versus migrant mothers and newborns in the North of Italy: a call to act with a stronger prevention program. PLoS One 2015;10:e0129586.
  57. Franchi B, Piazza M, Sandri M, Tenero L, Comberiati P, et al. 25-hydroxyvitamin D serum level in children of different ethnicity living in Italy. Eur J Pediatr 2015;174:749-57.
  58. Weinert LS, Silveiro SP. Maternal-fetal impact of vitamin D deficiency: a critical review. Mat Child Health J 2015;19:94-101.
  59. Wookey AF, Chollangi T, Yong HE, Kalionis B, Brennecke SP, et al. Placental vitamin D-binding protein expression in human idiopathic fetal growth restriction. J Pregnancy 2017;2017:5120267.
  60. Gray TK, Lowe W, Lester GE. Vitamin D and pregnancy: the maternal-fetal metabolism of vitamin D. Endocr Rev 1981; 2:264-74.
  61. Park SH, Lee GM, Moon JE, Kim HM. Severe vitamin D deficiency in preterm infants: maternal and neonatal clinical features. Korean J Pediatr 2015;58:427-33.
  62. Misra M, Pacaud D, Petryk A, Collett-Solberg PF, Kappy M, Drug and Therapeutics Committee of the Lawson Wilkins Pediatric Endocrine Society. Vitamin D deficiency in children and its management: review of current knowledge and recommendations. Pediatrics 2008;122:398-417.
  63. Wortsman J, Matsuoka LY, Chen TC, Lu Z, Holick MF. Decreased bioavailability of vitamin D in obesity. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;72:690-3.
  64. Reinehr T, de Sousa G, Alexy U, Kersting M, Andler W. Vitamin D status and parathyroid hormone in obese children before and after weight loss. Eur J Endocrinol 2007;157:225-32.
  65. Holick MF, Binkley NC, Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Gordon CM, Hanley DA, et al. Evaluation, treatment, and prevention of vitamin D deficiency: an endocrine society clinical practice guideline.
  66. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2011;96:1911-30.
  67. Valtuena J, Gonzalez-Gross M, Huybrechts I, Breidenassel C, Ferrari M, et al. Factors associated with vitamin D deficiency in European adolescents: the HELENA study. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo) 2013;59:161-71.
  68. Robien K, Oppeneer SJ, Kelly JA, Hamilton-Reeves JM. Drug- vitamin D interactions: a systematic review of the literature. Nutr Clin Pract 2013;28:194-208.
  69. Skversky AL, Kumar J, Abramowitz MK, Kaskel FJ, Melamed ML. Association of glucocorticoid use and low 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels: results from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES): 2001-2006. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2011;96:38 38-45.
  70. Ahn J, Yu K, Stolzenberg-Solomon R, Simon KC, McCullough ML, et al. Genome-wide association study of circulating vitamin D levels. Hum Mol Genet 2010;19:2739-45.
  71. Petersen RA, Larsen LH, Damsgaard CT, Sorensen LB, Hjorth MF, et al. Common genetic variants are associated with lower serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations across the year among children at northern latitudes. Brit J Nutr 2017;117:829-38.
  72. Labuda M, Fujiwara TM, Ross MV, Morgan K, Garcia-Heras J, et al. Two hereditary defects related to vitamin D metabolism map to the same region of human chromosome 12q13-14.
  73. J Bone Miner Res 1992;7:1447-53.
  74. Chun SK, Shin S, Kim MY, Joung H, Chung J. Effects of maternal genetic polymorphisms in vitamin D-binding protein and serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration on infant birth weight. Nutrition 2017;35:36-42.
  75. Girgis CM, Clifton-Bligh RJ, Hamrick MW, Holick MF, Gunton JF. The roles of vitamin D in skeletal muscle: form, function, and metabolism. Endocr Rev 2013;34:33-83.
  76. Munns CF, Shaw N, Kiely M, Specker BL, Thacher TD, et al. Global consensus recommendations on prevention and management of nutritional rickets. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2016;101:394-415.
  77. Saggese G, Vierucci F, Boot AM, Czech-Kowalska J, Weber G, et al. Vitamin D in childhood and adolescence: an expert position statement. Eur J Pediatr 2015;174:565-76.
  78. Dogru M, Kirmizibekmez H, Yesiltepe Mutlu RG, Aktas A, Ozturkmen S. Clinical effects of vitamin D in children with asthma. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 2014;164:319-25.
  79. Gupta A, Bush A, Hawrylowicz C, Saglani S. Vitamin D and asthma in children. Paediatr Resp Rev 2012;13:236-43.
  80. Searing DA, Zhang Y, Murphy JR, Hauk PJ, Goleva E, et al. Decreased serum vitamin D levels in children with asthma are associated with increased corticosteroid use. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2010;125:995-1000.
  81. Goleva E, Searing DA, Jackson LP, Richers BN, Leung DY. Steroid requirements and immune associations with vitamin D are stronger in children than adults with asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2012;129:1243-51.
  82. Riverin BD, Maguire JL, Li P. Vitamin D supplementation for childhood asthma: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One 2015;10:e0136841.
  83. Luo J, Liu D, Liu C-T. Can vitamin D supplementation in addition to asthma controllers improve clinical outcomes in patients with asthma? Medicine (Baltimore) 2015;94:e2185.
  84. Martineau AR, Cates CJ, Urashima M, Jensen M, Griffiths AP, et al. Vitamin D for the management of asthma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2016;9:CD011511.
  85. Kim MJ, Kim SN, Lee YW, Choe YB, Ahn KJ. Vitamin D status and efficacy of Vitamin D supplementation in atopic dermatitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients 2016;8:E789.
  86. Camargo CA Jr, Ganmaa D, Sidbury R, Erdenedelger Kh, Rad- naakhand N, et al. Randomized trial of vitamin D supplementation for winter-related atopic dermatitis in children. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2014;134:831-5.
  87. Bath-Hextall FJ, Jenkinson C, Humphreys R, Williams HC. Dietary supplements for established atopic eczema. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2012;2:CD005205.
  88. Liu C, Lu M, Xia X, Wang J, Wan Y, et al. Correlation of serum vitamin d level with type 1 diabetes mellitus in children: a meta-analysis. Nutr Hosp 2015;32:1591-4.
  89. Savastio S, Cadario F, Genoni G, Bellomo G, Bagnati M, et al. Vitamin D deficiency and glycemic status in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes mellitus. PLoS One 2016;11:e0162554.
  90. Mathieu C. Vitamin D and diabetes: where do we stand? Diab Res Clin Pract 2015;108:201-9.
  91. Simpson M, Brady H, Yin X, Seifert J, Barriga K, et al. No association of vitamin D intake or 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels in childhood with risk of islet autoimmunity and type 1 diabetes: the Diabetes Autoimmunity Study in the Young (DAISY). Diabetolo- gia 2011;54:2779-88.
  92. Makinen M, Mykkanen J, Koskinen M, Simell V, Veijola R, et al. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations in children progressing to autoimmunity and clinical type 1 diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2016;101:723-9.
  93. Frederiksen BN, Kroehl M, Fingerlin TE, Wong R, Steck AK, et al. Association between vitamin D metabolism gene polymorphisms and risk of islet autoimmunity and progression to type 1 diabetes: the diabetes autoimmunity study in the young (DAISY). J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2013;98:E1845-51.
  94. Wicklow BA, Taback SP. Feasibility of a type 1 diabetes primary prevention trial using 2000 IU vitamin D3 in infants from the general population with increased HLA-associated risk. Ann NY Acad Sci 2006;1079:310-2.
  95. Ananthakrishnan AN, Khalili H, Higuchi LM, Bao Y, Korzenik JR, et al. Higher predicted vitamin D status is associated with reduced risk of Crohn’s disease. Gastroenterology 2012;142:482-9.
  96. Ulitsky A, Ananthakrishnan AN, Naik A, Skaros S, Zadvornova Y, et al. Vitamin D deficiency in patients with inflammatory bowel disease: association with disease activity and quality of life.
  97. J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2011;35:308-16.
  98. Sadeghian M, Saneei P, Siassi F, Esmaillzadeh A. Vitamin D status in relation to Crohn’s disease: meta-analysis of observational studies. Nutrition 2016;32:505-14.
  99. Veit LE, Maranda L, Fong J, Nwosu BU. The vitamin D status in inflammatory bowel disease. PLoS One 2014;9:e101583.
  100. Onwuneme C, Carroll A, Doherty D, Bruell H, Segurado R, et al. Inadequate vitamin D levels are associated with culture positive sepsis and poor outcomes in paediatric intensive care. Acta Paediatr 2015;104:e433-8.
  101. Grant WB, Cannell JJ. Autism prevalence in the United States with respect to solar UV-B doses: an ecological study. Dermatoendocrinol 2013;5:159-64.
  102. Modan-Moses D, Pinhas-Hamiel O, Munitz-Shenkar D, Temam V, Kanety H, et al. Vitamin D status in pediatric patients with a history of malignancy. Pediatr Res 2012;72:620-4.
  103. Lima GL, Paupitz J, Aikawa NE, Takayama L, Bonfa E, et al. Vitamin D supplementation in adolescentsand young adults with juvenile systemic lupus erythematosus for improvement in disease activity and fatigue scores: a randomized, doubleblind, placebo-controlled trial. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) 2016;68:91-8.
  104. Cediel G, Corvalan C, Lopez de Romana D, Mericq V, Uauy R. Prepubertal adiposity, vitamin D status, and insulin resistance. Pediatrics 2016;138:e20160076.
  105. Stagi S, Bertini F, Cavalli L, Matucci-Cerinic M, Brandi ML, et al. Determinants of vitamin D levels in children, adolescents, and young adults with juvenile idiopathic arthritis. J Rheumatol 2014;41:1884-92.
  106. Sonmez FM, Donmez A, Namuslu M, Canbal M, Orun E. Vitamin D deficiency in children with newly diagnosed idiopathic epilepsy. J Child Neurol 2015;30:1428-32.
  107. Moreno-Solfs G, Fernandez-Gutierrez F, Torres-Borrego J, Torcello-Gaspar R, Gomez-Chaparro Moreno JL, et al. Low serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and bronchiolitis severity in Spanish infants. Eur J Pediatr 2015;174:365-72.
  108. Vanstone MB, Egan ME, Zhang JH, Carpenter TO. Association between serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D level and pulmonary exacerbations in cystic fibrosis. Pediatr Pulmonol 2015;50:441-6.
  109. Venturini E, Facchini L, Martinez-Alier N, Novelli V, Galli L, et al. Vitamin D and tuberculosis: a multicenter study in children. BMC Infect Dis 2014;14:652.
  110. Dudding T, Thomas SJ, Duncan K, Lawlor DA, Timpson NJ. Re-examining the association between vitamin D and childhood caries. PLoS One 2015;10:e0143769.
  111. Bergman P, Lindh AU, Bjorkhem-Bergman L, Lindh JD. Vitamin D and respiratory tract infections: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled Trials. PLoS One 2013;8:e65835.
  112. Clemente MG, Mandato C, Poeta M, Vajro P. Pediatric nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: Recent solutions, unresolved issues, and future research directions. World J Gastroenterol 2016;22:8078-93.
  113. Eliades M, Spyrou E, Agrawal N, Lazo M, Brancati FL, et al. Meta-analysis: vitamin D and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2013;38:246-54.
  114. Sullivan S, Wills A, Lawlor D, McGrath J, Zammit S. Prenatal vitamin D status and risk of psychotic experiences at age 18 years-a longitudinal birth cohort. Schiz Res 2013;148:87-92.
  115. Franczyk A, Stolarz-Skrzypek K, Wesotowska A, Czarnecka D. Vitamin D and vitamin D receptor activators in treatment of hypertension and cardiovascular disease. Cardiovasc Hematol Disord Drug Targets 2014;14:34-44.
  116. Garland CF, Garland FC, Gorham ED, Lipkin M, Newmark H, et al. The role of vitamin D in cancer prevention. Am J Public Health 2006;96:252-61.
  117. Grant WB. 25-hydroxyvitamin D and breast cancer, colorectal cancer, and colorectal adenomas: case-control versus nested case-control studies. Anticancer Res 2015;35:1153-60.
  118. Fraser DR. Vitamin D. Lancet 1995;345:104-7.
  119. Ross AC, Taylor CL, Yaktine AL, Del Valle HB, editors. Dietary reference intakes for calcium and vitamin D. Institute of Medicine of the National Academies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2011.
  120. Society for Adolescent Health and Medicine. Recommended vitamin D intake and management of low vitamin D status in adolescents: a position statement of the society for adolescent health and medicine. J Adolesc Health 2013;52:801-3.
  121. Veierod MB, Weiderpass E, Thorn M, Hansson J, Lund E, et al. A prospective study of pigmentation, sun exposure, and risk of cutaneous malignant melanoma in women. J Natl Cancer Inst 2003;95:1530-8.
  122. Grodstein F, Speizer FE, Hunter DJ. A prospective study of incident squamous cell carcinoma of the skin in the nurses’ health study. J Natl Cancer Ins 1995;87:1061-6.
  123. American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Environmental Health. Ultraviolet light: a hazard to children. Pediatrics 1999;104(2 pt 1):328-33.
  124. Health Canada. Consolidation Food and Drugs Regulation. editor: The Minister of Justice Canada, Ottawa, ON, 2014.
  125. Calvo MS, Whiting SJ, Barton CN. Vitamin D fortification in the United States and Canada: current status and data needs. Am J Clin Nutr 2004;80:1710S-6S.
  126. Siafarikas A, Deichl A, Jahreis G, Pieplow A, Vogel H, et al. Cross-sectional analysis of universal vitamin D supplementation in former East Germany during the first year of life. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 2017;30:395-404.
  127. Lerch C, Meissner T. Interventions for the prevention of nutritional rickets in term born children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007;4:CD006164.
  128. Abrams SA, Committee on Nutrition. Calcium and vitamin D requirements of enterally fed preterm infants. Pediatrics 2013;131:e1676-83.
  129. Sonmez FM, Donmez A, Namuslu M, Canbal M, Orun E. Vitamin D deficiency in children with newly diagnosed idiopathic epilepsy. J Child Neurol 2015;30:1428-32.
  130. Moreno-Solfs G, Fernandez-Gutierrez F, Torres-Borrego J, Torcello-Gaspar R, Gomez-Chaparro Moreno JL, et al. Low serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and bronchiolitis severity in Spanish infants. Eur J Pediatr 2015;174:365-72.
  131. Vanstone MB, Egan ME, Zhang JH, Carpenter TO. Association between serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D level and pulmonary exacerbations in cystic fibrosis. Pediatr Pulmonol 2015;50:441-6.
  132. Venturini E, Facchini L, Martinez-Alier N, Novelli V, Galli L, et al. Vitamin D and tuberculosis: a multicenter study in children. BMC Infect Dis 2014;14:652.*
  133. Dudding T, Thomas SJ, Duncan K, Lawlor DA, Timpson NJ. Re-examining the association between vitamin D and childhood caries. PLoS One 2015;10:e0143769.
  134. Bergman P, Lindh AU, Bjorkhem-Bergman L, Lindh JD. Vitamin D and respiratory tract infections: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled Trials. PLoS One 2013;8:e65835.
  135. Clemente MG, Mandato C, Poeta M, Vajro P. Pediatric nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: Recent solutions, unresolved issues, and future research directions. World J Gastroenterol 2016;22:8078-93.
  136. Eliades M, Spyrou E, Agrawal N, Lazo M, Brancati FL, et al. Meta-analysis: vitamin D and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2013;38:246-54.
  137. Sullivan S, Wills A, Lawlor D, McGrath J, Zammit S. Prenatal vitamin D status and risk of psychotic experiences at age 18 years-a longitudinal birth cohort. Schiz Res 2013;148:87-92.
  138. Franczyk A, Stolarz-Skrzypek K, Wesotowska A, Czarnecka D. Vitamin D and vitamin D receptor activators in treatment of hypertension and cardiovascular disease. Cardiovasc Hematol Disord Drug Targets 2014;14:34-44.
  139. Garland CF, Garland FC, Gorham ED, Lipkin M, Newmark H, et al. The role of vitamin D in cancer prevention. Am J Public Health 2006;96:252-61.
  140. Grant WB. 25-hydroxyvitamin D and breast cancer, colorectal cancer, and colorectal adenomas: case-control versus nested case-control studies. Anticancer Res 2015;35:1153-60.
  141. Fraser DR. Vitamin D. Lancet 1995;345:104-7.
  142. Ross AC, Taylor CL, Yaktine AL, Del Valle HB, editors. Dietary reference intakes for calcium and vitamin D. Institute of Medicine of the National Academies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2011.
  143. Society for Adolescent Health and Medicine. Recommended vitamin D intake and management of low vitamin D status in adolescents: a position statement of the society for adolescent health and medicine. J Adolesc Health 2013;52:801-3.
  144. Veierod MB, Weiderpass E, Thorn M, Hansson J, Lund E, et al. A prospective study of pigmentation, sun exposure, and risk of cutaneous malignant melanoma in women. J Natl Cancer Inst 2003;95:1530-8.
  145. Grodstein F, Speizer FE, Hunter DJ. A prospective study of incident squamous cell carcinoma of the skin in the nurses’ health study. J Natl Cancer Ins 1995;87:1061-6.
  146. American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Environmental Health. Ultraviolet light: a hazard to children. Pediatrics 1999;104(2 pt 1):328-33.
  147. Health Canada. Consolidation Food and Drugs Regulation. editor: The Minister of Justice Canada, Ottawa, ON, 2014.
  148. Sonmez FM, Donmez A, Namuslu M, Canbal M, Orun E. Vitamin D deficiency in children with newly diagnosed idiopathic epilepsy. J Child Neurol 2015;30:1428-32.
  149. Moreno-Solfs G, Fernandez-Gutierrez F, Torres-Borrego J, Torcello-Gaspar R, Gomez-Chaparro Moreno JL, et al. Low serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and bronchiolitis severity in Spanish infants. Eur J Pediatr 2015;174:365-72.
  150. Vanstone MB, Egan ME, Zhang JH, Carpenter TO. Association between serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D level and pulmonary exacerbations in cystic fibrosis. Pediatr Pulmonol 2015;50:441-6.
  151. Venturini E, Facchini L, Martinez-Alier N, Novelli V, Galli L, et al. Vitamin D and tuberculosis: a multicenter study in children. BMC Infect Dis 2014;14:652.*
  152. Dudding T, Thomas SJ, Duncan K, Lawlor DA, Timpson NJ. Re-examining the association between vitamin D and childhood caries. PLoS One 2015;10:e0143769.
  153. Bergman P, Lindh AU, Bjorkhem-Bergman L, Lindh JD. Vitamin D and respiratory tract infections: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled Trials. PLoS One 2013;8:e65835.
  154. Clemente MG, Mandato C, Poeta M, Vajro P. Pediatric nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: Recent solutions, unresolved issues, and future research directions. World J Gastroenterol 2016;22:8078-93.
  155. Eliades M, Spyrou E, Agrawal N, Lazo M, Brancati FL, et al. Meta-analysis: vitamin D and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2013;38:246-54.
  156. Sullivan S, Wills A, Lawlor D, McGrath J, Zammit S. Prenatal vitamin D status and risk of psychotic experiences at age 18 years-a longitudinal birth cohort. Schiz Res 2013;148:87-92.
  157. Franczyk A, Stolarz-Skrzypek K, Wesotowska A, Czarnecka D. Vitamin D and vitamin D receptor activators in treatment of hypertension and cardiovascular disease. Cardiovasc Hematol Disord Drug Targets 2014;14:34-44.
  158. Garland CF, Garland FC, Gorham ED, Lipkin M, Newmark H, et al. The role of vitamin D in cancer prevention. Am J Public Health 2006;96:252-61.
  159. Grant WB. 25-hydroxyvitamin D and breast cancer, colorectal cancer, and colorectal adenomas: case-control versus nested case-control studies. Anticancer Res 2015;35:1153-60.
  160. Fraser DR. Vitamin D. Lancet 1995;345:104-7.
  161. Ross AC, Taylor CL, Yaktine AL, Del Valle HB, editors. Dietary reference intakes for calcium and vitamin D. Institute of Medicine of the National Academies. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2011.
  162. Society for Adolescent Health and Medicine. Recommended vitamin D intake and management of low vitamin D status in adolescents: a position statement of the society for adolescent health and medicine. J Adolesc Health 2013;52:801-3.
  163. Veierod MB, Weiderpass E, Thorn M, Hansson J, Lund E, et al. A prospective study of pigmentation, sun exposure, and risk of cutaneous malignant melanoma in women. J Natl Cancer Inst 2003;95:1530-8.
  164. Grodstein F, Speizer FE, Hunter DJ. A prospective study of incident squamous cell carcinoma of the skin in the nurses’ health study. J Natl Cancer Ins 1995;87:1061-6.
  165. American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Environmental Health. Ultraviolet light: a hazard to children. Pediatrics 1999;104(2 pt 1):328-33.
  166. Health Canada. Consolidation Food and Drugs Regulation. editor: The Minister of Justice Canada, Ottawa, ON, 2014.
  167. Calvo MS, Whiting SJ, Barton CN. Vitamin D fortification in the United States and Canada: current status and data needs. Am J Clin Nutr 2004;80:1710S-6S.
  168. Siafarikas A, Deichl A, Jahreis G, Pieplow A, Vogel H, et al. Cross-sectional analysis of universal vitamin D supplementation in former East Germany during the first year of life. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 2017;30:395-404.
  169. Lerch C, Meissner T. Interventions for the prevention of nutritional rickets in term born children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007;4:CD006164.
  170. Abrams SA, Committee on Nutrition. Calcium and vitamin D requirements of enterally fed preterm infants. Pediatrics 2013;131:e1676-83.
  171. British National Formulary for Children. Vitamin D. Published by BMJ Group London, 2012. Available at: www.sbp.com.br/ pdfs7british_national_formulary_for_children_2011-2012.pdf [Accessed 2017 May 02].
  172. Rosen CJ, Abrams SA, Aloia JF, Brannon PM, Clinton SK, et al. IOM committee members respond to Endocrine Society vitamin D guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2012;97:1146-52.

4886 visitors, last modified 06 Apr, 2018,
Printer Friendly Follow this page for updates