The clinician's guide to prevention and treatment of osteoporosis (vitamin D is mentioned) – April 2022

The clinician's guide to prevention and treatment of osteoporosis

The clinician's guide to prevention and treatment of osteoporosis

Osteoporos Int. 2022 Apr 28. doi: 10.1007/s00198-021-05900-y PDF is behind paywall
M S LeBoff 1, S L Greenspan 2, K L Insogna 3, E M Lewiecki 4, K G Saag 5, A J Singer 6, E S Siris 7

Osteoporosis is the most common metabolic bone disease in the USA and the world. It is a subclinical condition until complicated by fracture(s). These fractures place an enormous medical and personal burden on individuals who suffer from them and take a significant economic toll. Any new fracture in an adult aged 50 years or older signifies imminent elevated risk for subsequent fractures, particularly in the year following the initial fracture. What a patient perceives as an unfortunate accident may be seen as a sentinel event indicative of bone fragility and increased future fracture risk even when the result of considerable trauma. Clinical or subclinical vertebral fractures, the most common type of osteoporotic fractures, are associated with a 5-fold increased risk for additional vertebral fractures and a 2- to 3-fold increased risk for fractures at other sites. Untreated osteoporosis can lead to a vicious cycle of recurrent fracture(s), often resulting in disability and premature death. In appropriate patients, treatment with effective antifracture medication prevents fractures and improves outcomes. Primary care providers and medical specialists are critical gatekeepers who can identify fractures and initiate proven osteoporosis interventions. Osteoporosis detection, diagnosis, and treatment should be routine practice in all adult healthcare settings. The Bone Health and Osteoporosis Foundation (BHOF) - formerly the National Osteoporosis Foundation - first published the Clinician's Guide in 1999 to provide accurate information on osteoporosis prevention and treatment. Since that time, significant improvements have been made in diagnostic technologies and treatments for osteoporosis. Despite these advances, a disturbing gap persists in patient care. At-risk patients are often not screened to establish fracture probability and not educated about fracture prevention. Most concerning, the majority of highest risk women and men who have a fracture(s) are not diagnosed and do not receive effective, FDA-approved therapies. Even those prescribed appropriate therapy are unlikely to take the medication as prescribed. The Clinician's Guide offers concise recommendations regarding prevention, risk assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women and men aged 50 years and older. It includes indications for bone densitometry as well as fracture risk thresholds for pharmacologic intervention. Current medications build bone and/or decrease bone breakdown and dramatically reduce incident fractures. All antifracture therapeutics treat but do not cure the disease. Skeletal deterioration resumes sooner or later when a medication is discontinued-sooner for nonbisphosphonates and later for bisphosphonates. Even if normal BMD is achieved, osteoporosis and elevated risk for fracture are still present. The diagnosis of osteoporosis persists even if subsequent DXA T-scores are above - 2.5. Ongoing monitoring and strategic interventions will be necessary if fractures are to be avoided.
In addition to pharmacotherapy, adequate intake of calcium and vitamin D, avoidance of smoking and excessive alcohol intake, weight-bearing and resistance-training exercise, and fall prevention are included in the fracture prevention armamentarium. Where possible, recommendations in this guide are based on evidence from RCTs; however, relevant published data and guidance from expert clinical experience provides the basis for recommendations in those areas where RCT evidence is currently deficient or not applicable to the many osteoporosis patients not considered for RCT participation due to age and morbidity.

VitaminDWiki - Overview Osteoporosis and vitamin D contains

FACT: Bones need Calcium (this has been known for a very long time)
FACT: Vitamin D improves Calcium bioavailability (3X ?)
FACT: Should not take > 750 mg of Calcium if taking lots of vitamin D (Calcium becomes too bio-available)
FACT: Adding vitamin D via Sun, UV, or supplements increased vitamin D in the blood
FACT: [https://www.vitamindwiki.com/tiki-index.php?page_id=120|Vitamin D supplements] are very low cost
FACT: Many trials, studies. reviews, and meta-analysis agree: adding vitamin D reduces osteoporosis
FACT: Toxic level of vitamin D is about 4X higher than the amount needed to reduce osteoporosis
FACT: [https://www.vitamindwiki.com/tiki-index.php?page_id=1270|Co-factors] help build bones.
FACT: Vitamin D Receptor can restrict Vitamin D from getting to many tissues, such as bones
It appears that to TREAT Osteoporosis:
Calcium OR vitamin D is ok
Calcium + vitamin D is good
Calcium + vitamin D + other co-factors is great
Low-cost Vitamin D Receptor activators sometimes may be helpful
CONCLUSION: To PREVENT many diseases, including Osteoporosis, as well as TREAT Osteoporosis
[https://www.vitamindwiki.com/tiki-browse_categories.php?parentId=49&sort_mode=created_desc|Category Osteoporosis has ] 207 items
[https://www.vitamindwiki.com/tiki-browse_categories.php?parentId=6&sort_mode=created_desc|Category Bone Health has ] 299 items

Note: Osteoporosis causes bones to become fragile and prone to fracture
Osteoarthritis is a disease where damage occurs to the joints at the end of the bones

VitaminDWiki - Osteoporosis category contains

207 items in category - see also Overview Osteoporosis and vitamin D
Overview Fractures and vitamin D
Bone - Health 299 items
[https://vitamindwiki.com/Exercise+improves+bone+strength+%28good%29%2C+but+not+bone+mineral+density+%28can+be+measured%29+%E2%80%93+RCT+Oct+2021#VitaminDWiki_pages_with_BONE_MINERAL_DENSITY_or_BMD_in_title|VitaminDWiki pages with BONE MINERAL DENSITY or BMD in title] 29+ pages
[https://www.vitamindwiki.com/Search+Results?hl=en&oe=UTF-8&ie=UTF-8&btnG=Google+Search&googles.x=0&googles.y=0&q=osteopenia&domains=vitamindwiki.com&sitesearch=vitamindwiki.com|Search VitaminDWiki for OSTEOPENIA] 1740 items as of July 2020
12 articles are in both Osteroporosis and Vitamin D Receptor categories
9 articles are in both Osteroporosis and Meta-analysis categories
20X increase in vitamin D sold and 36 percent decrease in osteoporosis business in Australia – Nov 2013

References (Vitamin occurs 40 times)

Holick MF, Binkley NC, Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Endocrine Society et al (2011) Evaluation, treatment, and prevention of vitamin D deficiency: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 96(7):1911–1930 - PubMed
Ross AC, Manson JE, Abrams SA et al (2011) The 2011 report on dietary reference intakes for calcium and vitamin D from the Institute of Medicine: what clinicians need to know. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 96(1):53–58 - PubMed
Dudenkov DV, Yawn BP, Oberhelman SS et al (2015) Changing incidence of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin d values above 50 ng/mL: a 10-year population-based study. Mayo Clin Proc 90(5):577–586 - PubMed
Leslie WD, Schousboe JT, Morin SN et al (2020) Fracture risk following high-trauma versus low-trauma fracture: a registry-based cohort study. Osteoporos Int Jun 31(6):1059–1067
Mackey DC, Lui LY, Cawthon PM, Study of Osteoporotic Fractures (SOF) and Osteoporotic Fractures in Men Study (MrOS) Research Groups et al (2007) High-trauma fractures and low bone mineral density in older women and men. JAMA 298(20):2381–2388 - PubMed
Yang J, Cosman F, Stone PW, Li M, Nieves JW (2020) Vertebral fracture assessment (VFA) for osteoporosis screening in US postmenopausal women: is it cost-effective? Osteoporos Int. Dec 31(12):2321–2335
Hillier TA, Lui LY, Kado DM et al (2012) Height loss in older women: risk of hip fracture and mortality independent of vertebral fractures. J Bone Miner Res 27(1):153–159 - PubMed
Bilezikian JP, Brandi ML, Eastell R (2014) Guidelines for the management of asymptomatic primary hyperparathyroidism: summary statement from the Fourth International Workshop. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 99(10):3561–3569 - PubMed - PMC
Glowacki J, Hurwitz S, Thornhill TS, Kelly M, LeBoff MS (2003) Osteoporosis and vitamin-D deficiency among postmenopausal women with osteoarthritis undergoing total hip arthroplasty. J Bone Joint Surg Am 85(12):2371–2377 - PubMed
Bernatz JT, Brooks AE, Squire MW, Illgen RI 2nd, Binkley NC, Anderson PA (2019) Osteoporosis is common and undertreated prior to total joint arthroplasty. J Arthroplasty 34(7):1347–1353 - PubMed
Anderson PA, Morgan SL, Krueger D et al (2019) Use of bone health evaluation in orthopedic surgery: 2019 ISCD Official Position. J Clin Densitom 22(4):517–543 - PubMed
Bynum JPW, Bell JE, Cantu RV et al (2016) Second fractures among older adults in the year following hip, shoulder, or wrist fracture. Osteoporosis Int 27(7):2207–2215
Siris ES, Adler R, Bilezikian J et al (2014) The clinical diagnosis of osteoporosis: a position statement from the National Bone Health Alliance Working Group. Osteoporos Int 25(5):1439–1443 - PubMed - PMC
Adler RA, El-Hajj Fuleihan G, Bauer DC, Camacho PM et al (2016) Managing osteoporosis in patients on long-term bisphosphonate treatment: report of a task force of the American Society for Bone and Mineral Research. J Bone Miner Res 31(1):16–35 - PubMed
National Osteoporosis Foundation (2014) Clinician’s Guide to Prevention and Treatment of Osteoporosis. National Osteoporosis Foundation, Washington, DC
Cauley JA, Lui LY, Ensrud KE et al (2005) Bone mineral density and the risk of incident nonspinal fractures in black and white women. JAMA 293(17):2102–2108 - PubMed
Liu XS, Walker MD, McMahon DJ, Udesky J, Liu G, Bilezikian JP, Guo XE (2011) Better skeletal microstructure confers greater mechanical advantages in Chinese-American women versus white women. J Bone Miner Res 26(8):1783–1792 - PubMed
Shin MH, Zmuda JM, Barrett-Connor E, Osteoporotic Fractures in Men (MrOS) Research Group et al (2014) Race/ethnic differences in associations between bone mineral density and fracture history in older men. Osteoporos Int 25(3):837–845 - PubMed
Cauley JA, Chalhoub D, Kassem AM, Fuleihan G-H (2014) Geographic and ethnic disparities in osteoporotic fractures. Nat Rev Endocrinol 10(6):338–351 - PubMed
Nelson DA, Beck TJ, Wu G et al (2011) Ethnic differences in femur geometry in the women’s health initiative observational study. Osteoporos Int 22(5):1377–1388 - PubMed
Wright NC, Looker A, Saag K et al (2014) The recent prevalence of osteoporosis and low bone mass based on bone mineral density at the femoral neck or lumbar spine in the United States based on bone mineral density at the femoral neck or lumbar spine. J Bone Miner Res 29(11):2520–2526 - PubMed
Viswanathan M, Reddy S, Berkman N et al (2018) Screening to prevent osteoporotic fractures: updated evidence report and systematic review for the US Preventive Services Task Force. JAMA 319(24):2532–2551 - PubMed
Burge R, Dawson-Hughes B, Solomon DH, Wong JB, King A, Tosteson A (2007) Incidence and economic burden of osteoporosis-related fractures in the United States, 2005-2025. J Bone Miner Res 22(3):465–475 - PubMed
Benjamin EJ, Virani SS, Callaway CW et al (2018) American Heart Association Council on Epidemiology and Prevention Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. Heart disease and stroke statistics—2018 update: a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation 137(12):e67–e492 - PubMed
American Cancer Society. Surveillance research (2019) Available at: https://www.cancer.org/content/dam/cancer-org/research/cancer-facts-and-... Accessed January 2019.
Lewiecki EM, Ortendahl JD, Vanderpuye-Orgle J et al (2019) Healthcare policy changes in osteoporosis can improve outcomes and reduce costs in the United States. JBMR Plus 3(9):e10192 - PubMed - PMC
Office of the Surgeon General (US) (2004) Bone health and osteoporosis: a report of the Surgeon General. Office of the Surgeon General (US), Rockville
Roerholt C, Eiken P, Abrahamsen B (2009) Initiation of anti-osteoporotic therapy in patients with recent fractures: a nationwide analysis of prescription rates and persistence. Osteoporos Int 20(2):299–307 - PubMed
Liu SK, Munson JC, Bell JE et al (2013) Quality of osteoporosis care of older Medicare recipients with fragility fractures: 2006 to 2010. J Am Geriatr Soc 61(11):1855–1862 - PubMed - PMC
Kim SC, Kim MS, Sanfélix-Gimeno G et al (2015) Use of osteoporosis medications after hospitalization for hip fracture: a cross-national study. Am J Med 128(5):519–26.e1. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2015.01.014 - DOI - PubMed - PMC
Lewiecki EM, Wright NC, Siris E et al (2018) Hip fracture trends in the United States, 2002 to 2015. Osteoporos Int 29(3):717–722 - PubMed
Khosla S, Shane E (2016) A crisis in the treatment of osteoporosis. J Bone Miner Res 31(8):1485–1487 - PubMed
Roux C, Briot K (2018) Osteoporosis in 2017: addressing the crisis in the treatment of osteoporosis. Nat Rev Rheumatol 14(2):67–68 - PubMed
Svedbom A, Borgstöm F, Hernlund E et al (2018) Quality of life for up to 18 months after low-energy hip, vertebral, and distal forearm fractures-results from the ICUROS. Osteoporos Int 29(3):557–566 - PubMed
Abrahamsen B, van Staa T, Ariely R, Olson M, Cooper C (2009) Excess mortality following hip fracture: a systematic epidemiological review. Osteoporos Int 20(10):1633–1650 - PubMed
Colón-Emeric C, Kuchibhatla M, Pieper C et al (2003) The contribution of hip fracture to risk of subsequent fractures: data from eight longitudinal studies. Osteoporos Int 11:879–883
Lewiecki EM, Laster AJ (2006) Clinical review: clinical applications of vertebral fracture assessment by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry. J Clin Endo Metab 91(11):4215–4222
Johansson L, Svensson HK, Karlsson J et al (2019) Decreased physical health-related quality of life-a persisting state for older women with clinical vertebral fracture. Osteoporos Int 30(10):1961–1971 - PubMed - PMC
Crandall CJ, Hovey KM, Cauley JA, Andrews CA, Curtis JR, Wactawski-Wende J, Wright NC, Li W, LeBoff MS (2015) Wrist fracture and risk of subsequent fracture: findings from the Women’s Health Initiative Study. J Bone Miner Res 30(11):2086–2095 - PubMed
Wright NC, Hooker ER, Nielson CM et al (2018) The epidemiology of wrist fractures in older men: the Osteoporotic Fractures in Men (MrOS) study. Osteoporos Int 29(4):859–870 - PubMed - PMC
Crandall CJ, Hovey KM, Andrews CA, Cauley JA, Manson JE, Wactawski-Wende J, Wright NC, Li W, Beavers K, Curtis JR, LeBoff MS (2015) Bone mineral density predictor of subsequent wrist fractures: findings from the Women’s Health Initiative Study. J Clin Endo Metab 100(11):4315–4324
Rozental TD, Deschamps LN, Taylor A et al (2013) Premenopausal women with a distal radial fracture have deteriorated trabecular bone density and morphology compared with controls without a fracture. J Bone Joint Surg Am 95(7):633–642 - PubMed - PMC
Harper CM, Fitzpatrick SK, Zurakowski D, Rozental TD (2014) Distal radial fractures in older men. A missed opportunity? J Bone Joint Surg Am 96(21):1820–1827 - PubMed
Rozental TD, Makhni EC, Day CS, Bouxsein ML (2008) Improving evaluation and treatment for osteoporosis following distal radial fractures. A prospective randomized intervention. J Bone Joint Surg Am 90(5):953–961 - PubMed
Greenspan SL, Singer A, Vujevich K et al (2018) Implementing a fracture liaison service open model of care utilizing a cloud-based tool. Osteoporos Int 29(4):953–960 - PubMed - PMC
Naranje SM, Erali RA, Warner WC Jr, Sawyer JR, Kelly DM (2016) Epidemiology of pediatric fractures presenting to emergency departments in the United States. J Pediatr Orthop 36(4):e45–e48 - PubMed
Finkelstein JS, Brockwell SE, Mehta V et al (2008) Bone mineral density changes during the menopause transition in a multiethnic cohort of women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 93(3):861–868 - PubMed
Rizzoli R, Bianchi ML, Garabédian M, McKay HA, Moreno LA (2010) Maximizing bone mineral mass gain during growth for the prevention of fractures in the adolescents and the elderly. Bone 46(2):294–305 - PubMed
McClung MR (2017) Sclerostin antibodies in osteoporosis: latest evidence and therapeutic potential. Ther Adv Musculoskelet Dis 9(10):263–270 - PubMed - PMC
Dempster DW, Shane E, Horbert W, Lindsay R (1986) A simple method for correlative light and scanning electron microscopy of human iliac crest bone biopsies: qualitative observations in normal and osteoporotic subjects. J Bone Miner Res 1(1):15–21 - PubMed
Camacho PM, Petak SM, Binkley N et al (2020) American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists/American College of Endocrinology clinical practice guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis—2020 update. Endocr Pract 26(1):1–46 - PubMed
Balasubramanian A, Zhang J, Chen L et al (2019) Risk of subsequent fracture after prior fracture among older women. Osteoporos Int 30(1):79–92 - PubMed
Sheer RL, Barron RL, Sudharshan L, Pasquale MK (2020) Validated prediction of imminent risk of fracture for older adults. Am J Manag Care 26(3):e91–e97 - PubMed
National Osteoporosis Foundation (2003) Health professional’s guide to rehabilitation of the patient with osteoporosis. National Osteoporosis Foundation, Washington, DC
American Geriatrics Society, British Geriatrics Society, and American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons Panel on Falls Prevention (2001) Guideline for the prevention of falls in older persons. J Am Geriatr Soc 49:664–672
U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2019) STEADI (Stopping Elderly Accidents, Deaths & Injuries) tool kit for health care providers. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/steadi/index.html/ . Accessed November 2019
van den Bergh JP, van Geel TA, Geusens PP (2012) Osteoporosis, frailty and fracture: implications for case finding and therapy. Nat Rev Rheumatol 8(3):163–172 - PubMed
Watts NB, Adler RA, Bilezikian JP, Endocrine Society et al (2012) Osteoporosis in men: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 97(6):1802–1822 - PubMed
International Society for Clinical Densitometry (2019) ISCD OFFICIAL POSITIONS – ADULT. Available at: https://iscd.org/learn/official-positions/adult-positions/ Accessed October 2019
Kanis JA, Melton LJ 3rd, Christiansen C, Johnston CC, Khaltaev N (1994) The diagnosis of osteoporosis. J Bone Miner Res 9(8):1137–1141 - PubMed
Bouxsein ML, Eastell R, Lui LY, FNIH bone quality project et al (2019) Change in bone density and reduction in fracture risk: a meta-regression of published trials. J Bone Miner Res 34(4):632–642 - PubMed
Marshall D, Johnell O, Wedel H (1996) Meta-analysis of how well measures of bone mineral density predict occurrence of osteoporotic fractures. BMJ 312(7041):1254–1259 - PubMed - PMC
Tenne M, McGuigan F, Besjakov J, Gerdhem P, Åkesson K (2013) Degenerative changes at the lumbar spine--implications for bone mineral density measurement in elderly women. Osteoporos Int. 24(4):1419–1428 - PubMed
Okano I, Salzmann SN, Jones C et al (2020) The impact of degenerative disc disease on regional volumetric bone mineral density (vBMD) measured by quantitative computed tomography. Spine J. 20(2):181–190 - PubMed
Curry SJ, Krist AH, Owens DK, US Preventive Services Task Force et al (2018) Screening for osteoporosis to prevent fractures: US Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. JAMA 319(24):2521–2531 - PubMed
Ross PD, Davis JW, Epstein RS, Wasnich RD (1991) Pre-existing fractures and bone mass predict vertebral fracture incidence in women. Ann Intern Med 114(11):919–923 - PubMed
El Maghraoui A, Rezqi A, Mounach A, Achemlal L, Bezza A, Ghozlani I (2013) Systematic vertebral fracture assessment in asymptomatic postmenopausal women. Bone 52(1):176–180 - PubMed
Lenchik L, Rogers LF, Delmas PD, Genant HK (2004) Diagnosis of osteoporotic vertebral fractures: importance of recognition and description by radiologists. Am J Roentgenology 183(4):949–958
Buckley L, Guyatt G, Fink HA et al (2017) 2017 American College of Rheumatology Guideline for the prevention and treatment of glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis. Arthritis Rheumatol 69(8):1521–1537 - PubMed
Schousboe JT, Ensrud KE, Nyman JA, Kane RL, Melton LJ 3rd (2005) Potential cost-effective use of spine radiographs to detect vertebral deformity and select osteopenic post-menopausal women for amino-bisphosphonate therapy. Osteoporos Int 16(12):1883–1893 - PubMed
National Osteoporosis Foundation (2018) (NOF) and International Society for Clinical Densitometry (ISCD). FRAX implementation guide. Available at: https://www.iscd.org/resources/fracture-risk-models/ Accessed August 2018
Imerci A, Yalın Kılınç C, Aydogan NH, Karalezli MN, Savran A (2017) Fracture Risk Assessment Tool (FRAX®) results calculated with and without bone mineral density values for the evaluation of fracture risk in postmenopausal women with osteopenia. J Clin Densitom 3. pii:S1094-6950(16)30259-1
Greenspan SL, Perera S, Nace D et al (2012) FRAX or fiction: determining optimal screening strategies for treatment of osteoporosis in residents in long term care facilities. J Am Geriatr Soc 60(4):684–690 - PubMed - PMC
Roux S, Cabana F, Carrier N et al (2014) The World Health Organization Fracture Risk Assessment Tool (FRAX) underestimates incident and recurrent fractures in consecutive patients with fragility fractures. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 99(7):2400–2408 - PubMed
Tosteson ANA, Melton LJ 3rd, Dawson-Hughes B et al (2008) National Osteoporosis Foundation Guide Committee. Cost-effective osteoporosis treatment thresholds: the United States perspective. Osteoporos Int 19(4):437–447 - PubMed - PMC
Dawson-Hughes B, Tosteson ANA, Melton LJ 3rd et al (2008) National Osteoporosis Foundation Guide Committee. Implications of absolute fracture risk assessment for osteoporosis practice guidelines in the U.S.A. Osteoporos Int 19(4):449–458 - PubMed
Kanis JA, Johnell O, Oden A, Johansson H, McCloskey E (2008) FRAX® and the assessment of fracture probability in men and women from the UK. Osteoporos Int 19(4):385–397 - PubMed - PMC
Albert SG, Reddy S (2017) Efficacy of drugs for treatment of osteoporosis: a meta-analysis. Endocr Pract 23(7):841–856 - PubMed
Kanis JA, Harvey NC, Cooper C, Johansson H, Odén A, McCloskey EV, Advisory Board of the National Osteoporosis Guideline Group (2016) A systematic review of intervention thresholds based on FRAX: a report prepared for the National Osteoporosis Guideline Group and the International Osteoporosis Foundation. Archives of Osteoporosis 11(1):25 - PubMed - PMC
Lewiecki EM, Wright NC, Singer AJ (2020) Racial disparities, FRAX, and the care of patients with osteoporosis. Osteoporos Int 31:2069–2071 - PubMed - PMC
Martineau P, Leslie WD, Johansson H et al (2017) Clinical utility of using lumbar spine trabecular bone score to adjust fracture probability: the Manitoba BMD Cohort. J Bone Miner Res 32(7):1568–1574 - PubMed
Goldman AL, Donlon CM, Cook NR, Manson JE, Buring JE, Copeland T, Yu CY, LeBoff MS (2018) vitamin D and OmegA-3 TriaL (VITAL) bone health ancillary study: clinical factors associated with trabecular bone score in women and men. Osteoporos Int 29(11):2505–2515 - PubMed - PMC
Couraud G, Souffir C, Gaigneux E, Kolta S, Roux C, Briot K (2017) Adjusting FRAX® on TBS for identification of subjects at high risk of fractures. Bone 101:214–218 - PubMed
Shevroja E, Lamy O, Kohlmeier L, Koromani F, Rivadeneira F, Hans D (2017) Use of trabecular bone score (TBS) as a complementary approach to dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) for fracture risk assessment in clinical practice. J Clin Densitom 20(3):334–345 - PubMed
Leslie WD, Shevroja E, Johansson H et al (2018) Risk-equivalent T-score adjustment for using lumbar spine trabecular bone score (TBS): the Manitoba BMD registry. Osteoporos Int 29(3):751–758 - PubMed - PMC
McCloskey EV, Odén A, Harvey NC et al (2016) A meta-analysis of trabecular bone score in fracture risk prediction and its relationship to FRAX. J Bone Miner Res 31(5):940–948 - PubMed
Su Y, Leung L, Hans D, Lamy O, Kwok T (2017) The added value of trabecular bone score to FRAX® to predict major osteoporotic fractures for clinical use in Chinese older people: the Mr. OS and Ms. OS cohort study in Hong Kong. Osteoporos Int 28(1):111–117 - PubMed
Kanis JA, Johansson H, Oden A, McCloskey EV (2011) Guidance for the adjustment of FRAX according to the dose of glucocorticoids. Osteoporos Int 22(3):809–816 - PubMed
Lenchik L, Weaver AA, Ward RJ, Boone JM, Boutin RD (2018) Opportunistic screening for osteoporosis using computed tomography: state of the art and argument for paradigm shift. Curr Rheumatol Rep 20(12):74 - PubMed - PMC
Karjalainen JP, Riekkinen O, Töyräs J, Jurvelin JS, Kröger H (2016) New method for point-of-care osteoporosis screening and diagnostics. Osteoporos Int 27(3):971–977 - PubMed
Keaveny T, Clarke B, Cosman F et al (2020) Biomechanical computed tomography analysis (BCT) for clinical assessment of osteoporosis. Osteoporos Int 31:1025–1048 - PubMed - PMC
Burch J, Rice S, Yang H et al (2014) Systematic review of the use of bone turnover markers for monitoring the response to osteoporosis treatment: the secondary prevention of fractures, and primary prevention of fractures in high-risk groups. Health technology assessment (Winchester, England) 18(11):1–206
Bauer DC, Black DM, Bouxsein ML, Foundation for the National Institutes of Health (FNIH) Bone Quality Project et al (2018) Treatment-related charges in bone turnover and fracture risk reduction in clinical trials of anti-resorptive drugs: a meta-regression. J Bone Miner Res 33(4):634–642 - PubMed
Ross AC, Manson JE, Abrams SA et al (2011) The 2011 dietary reference intakes for calcium and vitamin d: what dietetics practitioners need to know. J Am Diet Assoc 111(4):524–527 - PubMed
Institute of Medicine (US) Committee to Review Dietary Reference Intakes for vitamin D and Calcium; Ross AC, Taylor CL, Yaktine AL, editors (2011) Dietary reference intakes for calcium and vitamin D. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2011. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK56070/ Accessed August 2018
Jackson RD, LaCroix AZ, Gass M, Women’s Health Initiative Investigators et al (2006) Calcium plus vitamin D supplementation and the risk of fractures. N Engl J Med 354(7):669–683 - PubMed
Larsen ER, Mosekilde L, Foldspang A (2004) vitamin D and calcium supplementation prevents osteoporotic fractures in elderly community dwelling residents: a pragmatic population-based 3-year intervention study. J Bone Miner Res 19(3):370–378 - PubMed
Weaver CM, Alexander DD, Boushey CJ et al (2016) Calcium plus vitamin D supplementation and risk of fractures: an updated meta-analysis from the National Osteoporosis Foundation. Osteoporos Int 27(1):367–376 (Erratum in: Osteoporos Int 27[8]:2643-2646) - PubMed
National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements. Calcium: fact sheet for health professionals. Available at: https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Calcium-HealthProfessional Accessed October 2019
Prentice RL, Pettinger MB, Jackson RD et al (2013) Health risks and benefits from calcium and vitamin D supplementation: Women’s Health Initiative clinical trial and cohort study. Osteoporos Int 24(2):567–580 - PubMed
Reid IR, Bolland MJ (2012) Calcium supplements: bad for the heart? Heart 98(12):895–896 - PubMed
Bolland MJ, Grey A, Avenell A, Gamble GD, Reid IR (2011) Calcium supplements with or without vitamin D and risk of cardiovascular events: reanalysis of the Women’s Health Initiative limited access dataset and meta-analysis. BMJ 19:342
Moyer VA, Preventive Services Task Force US (2013) vitamin D and calcium supplementation to prevent fractures in adults: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med 158(9):691–696. https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-158-9-201305070-00603
Chung M, Tang AM, Fu Z, Wang DD, Newberry SJ (2016) Calcium intake and cardiovascular disease risk: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med 165(12):856–866 - PubMed
Manson JE, Cook NR, Lee IM, VITAL research group et al (2019) vitamin D supplements and prevention of cancer and cardiovascular disease. N Engl J 380(1):33–44
Heaney RP (2005) The vitamin D requirement in health and disease. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 97(1-2):13–19 - PubMed
Heaney RP, Dowell MS, Hale CA, Bendich A (2003) Calcium absorption varies within the reference range for serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D. J Am Coll Nutr 22(2):142–146 - PubMed
Vieth R, Holick MF (2018) Chapter 57B - the IOM—Endocrine Society controversy on recommended vitamin d targets: in support of the Endocrine Society position. In: Feldman D, Pike JW, Bouillon R, vitamin D (eds) In, vol 1, 4th edn. Biochemistry, physiology and diagnostics, Academic Press. Elsevier Inc, London
Holick MF, Siris ES, Binkley N et al (2005) Prevalence of vitamin D inadequacy among postmenopausal north American women receiving osteoporosis therapy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90(6):3215–3224 - PubMed
Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Dawson-Hughes B, Orav EJ et al (2016) Monthly high-dose vitamin D treatment for the prevention of functional decline: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med 176(2):175–183 - PubMed
Sanders KM, Stuart AL, Williamson EJ et al (2010) Annual high-dose oral vitamin D and falls and fractures in older women: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 303(18):1815–1822 - PubMed
LeBoff MS, Hawkes WG, Glowacki J, Yu-Yahiro J, Hurwitz S, Magaziner J (2008) vitamin D-deficiency and post-fracture changes in lower extremity function and falls in women with hip fractures. Osteoporos Int 19(9):1283–1290 - PubMed - PMC
Looker AC, Pfeiffer CM, Lacher DA, Schleicher RL, Picciano MF, Yetley EA (2008) Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D status of the US population: 1988-1994 compared with 2000-2004. Am J Clin Nutr 88(6):1519–1527 - PubMed
Wortsman J, Matsuoka LY, Chen TC, Lu Z, Holick MF (2000) Decreased bioavailability of vitamin D in obesity. Am J Clin Nutr 72(3):690–693 - PubMed
Chung M, Lee J, Terasawa T, Lau J, Trikalinos TA (2011) vitamin D with or without calcium supplementation for prevention of cancer and fractures: an updated meta-analysis for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med 155(12):827–838 - PubMed
Newberry SJ, Chung M, Shekelle PG et al (2014) vitamin D and calcium: a systematic review of health outcomes (update). Evid Rep Technol Assess (Full Rep). 217:1–929
Avenell A, Mak JC, O’Connell D (2014) vitamin D and vitamin D analogues for preventing fractures in post-menopausal women and older men. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 14(4):CD000227
Reid IR, Bolland MJ, Grey A (2014) Effects of vitamin D supplements on bone mineral density: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet 383(9912):146–155 - PubMed
Bolland MJ, Grey A, Avenell A (2018) Effects of vitamin D supplementation on musculoskeletal health: a systematic review, meta-analysis, and trial sequential analysis. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 6(11):847–858 - PubMed
LeBoff MS, Yue AY, Copeland T, Cook NR, Buring JE, Manson JE (2015) VITAL-Bone Health: rationale and design of two ancillary studies evaluating the effects of vitamin D and/or omega-3 fatty acid supplements on incident fractures and bone health outcomes in the vitamin D and OmegA-3 TriaL (VITAL). Contemp Clin Trials 41:259–268 - PubMed - PMC
LeBoff MS, Chou SH, Murata EM, Donlon CM, Cook NR, Mora S, Lee IM, Kotler G, Bubes V, Buring JE, Manson JE (2020) Effects of supplemental vitamin D on bone health outcomes in women and men in the vitamin D and OmegA-3 TriaL (VITAL). J Bone Miner Res 35(5):888–893
Donlon CM, LeBoff MS, Chou SH, Cook NR, Copeland T, Buring JE, Bubes V, Kotler G, Manson JE (2018) Baseline characteristics of participants in the vitamin D and OmegA-3 TriaL (VITAL): Effects on bone structure and architecture. Contemp Clin Trials 67:56–67 - PubMed - PMC
LeBoff MS, Murata EM, Cook NR, Cawthon P, Chou SH, Kotler G, Bubes V, Buring JE, Manson JE (2020) vitamin D and OmegA-3 TriaL (VITAL): effects of vitamin D supplements on risk of falls in the US population. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 105(9):2929–2938 - PMC
Gillespie LD, Robertson MC, Gillespie WJ et al (2012) Interventions for preventing falls in older people living in the community. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (9):CD007146
Khaw KT, Stewart AW, Waayer D et al (2017) Effect of monthly high-dose vitamin D supplementation on falls and non-vertebral fractures: secondary and post-hoc outcomes from the randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled ViDA trial. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 5(6):438–447 - PubMed
Uusi-Rasi K, Patil R, Karinkanta S et al (2015) Exercise and vitamin D in fall prevention among older women: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Internl Med 175(5):703–711
Ayo-Yusuf OA, Olutola BG (2014) Epidemiological association between osteoporosis and combined smoking and use of snuff among South African women. Niger J Clin Pract 17:174–177 - PubMed
Waugh EJ, Lam MA, Hawker GA, McGowan J, Papaioannou A, Cheung AM (2009) Risk factors for low bone mass in healthy 40-60 year old women: a systematic review of the literature. Osteoporos Int 20:1–21 - PubMed
Benson BW, Shulman JD (2005) Inclusion of tobacco exposure as a predictive factor for decreased bone mineral content. Nicotine Tob Res 7:719–724 - PubMed
Krall EA, Dawson-Hughes B (1999) Smoking increases bone loss and decreases intestinal calcium absorption. J Bone Miner Res 14:215–220 - PubMed
Mikosch P (2014) Alcohol and bone. Wiener medizinische Wochenschrift 164(1-2):15–24 - PubMed
Burrows M (2007) Exercise and bone mineral accrual in children and adolescents. J Sports Sci Med 6(3):305–312 - PubMed - PMC
Giangregorio LM, Papainoannou A, MacIntyre NJ et al (2014) Too fit to fracture: exercise recommendations for individuals with osteoporosis or osteoporotic vertebral fracture. Osteoporos Int 25:821–835 - PubMed - PMC
Senderovich H, Tang H, Belmont S (2017) The role of exercises in osteoporotic fracture prevention and current care gaps. Where are we now? Recent updates. Rambam Maimonides Medical Journal 8(3):e0032 - PMC
Tricco AC, Thomas SM, Veroniki AA et al (2017) Comparisons of interventions for preventing falls in older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA. 318(17):1687–1699 - PubMed - PMC
Sherrington C, Fairhall N, Wallbank G et al (2019) Exercise for preventing falls in older people living in the community: an abridged Cochrane Systematic Review. Br J Sports Med
Watson SL, Weeks BK, Weis LJ, Horan SA, Beck BR (2015) Heavy resistance training is safe and improves bone, function, and stature in postmenopausal women with low to very low bone mass: novel early findings from the LIFTMOR trial. Osteoporos Int 26(12):2889–2894 - PubMed
Greenway KG, Walkley JW, Rich PA (2015) Impact exercise and bone density in premenopausal women with below average bone density for age. Eur J Appl Physiol 115(11):2457–2469 - PubMed
Katzman WB, Vittinghoff E, Lin F et al (2017) Targeted spine strengthening exercise and posture training program to reduce hyperkyphosis in older adults: results from the study of hyperkyphosis, exercise, and function (SHEAF) randomized controlled trial. Osteoporos Int 28(10):2831–2841 - PubMed - PMC
Brault MW (2012) Americans With Disabilities: 2010. Report number P70-131. Available at https://www.census.gov/library/publications/2012/demo/p70-131.html . Accessed 12/20
Salpakoski A, Törmäkangas T, Edgren J et al (2014) Walking recovery after a hip fracture: a prospective follow-up study among community-dwelling over 60-year old men and women. Biomed Res Int 2014:289549 - PubMed - PMC
Jager TE, Weiss HB, Coben JH, Pepe PE (2000) Traumatic brain injuries evaluated in U.S. emergency departments, 1992–1994. Academic Emergency Medicine 7(2):134–140 - PubMed
Hayes WC, Myers ER, Morris JN, Gerhart TN, Yett HS, Lipsitz LA (1993) Impact near the hip dominates fracture risk in elderly nursing home residents who fall. Calcif Tissue Int 52:192–198 - PubMed
Wainwright SA, Marshall LM, Ensrud KE, Study of Osteoporotic Fractures Research Group et al (2005) Hip fracture in women without osteoporosis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90:2787–2793 - PubMed
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control (2020) Web–based Injury Statistics Query and Reporting System (WISQARS). Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/injury/wisqars/fatal.html/ Accessed March 15, 2020
de Souto Barreto P, Rolland Y, Vellas B, Maltais M (2018) Association of long-term exercise training with risk of falls, fractures, hospitalizations, and mortality in older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Intern Med Published online December 28 2018
Granacher U, Gollhofer A, Hortobágyi T, Kressig RW, Muehlbauer T (2013) The importance of trunk muscle strength for balance, functional performance and fall prevention in seniors: a systematic review. Sports Med 43(7):627–641 - PubMed
Sherrington C, Whitney JC, Lord SR, Herbert RD, Cumming RG, Close JC (2008) Effective exercise for the prevention of falls: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Geriatr Soc 56(12):2234–2243 - PubMed
Choi M, Hector M (2012) Effectiveness of intervention programs in preventing falls: a systematic review of recent 10 years and meta-analysis. J Am Med Dir Assoc 13(2):188.e13-21
Liu-Ambrose T, Davis JC, Best JR et al (2019) Effect of a home-based exercise program on subsequent falls among community-dwelling high-risk older adults after a fall: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 321(21):2092–2100 - PubMed - PMC
Sherrington C, Fairhall NJ, Wallbank GK et al (2019) Exercise for preventing falls in older people living in the community. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 1(1):CD012424
LaMonte MJ, Wactawski-Wende J, Larson JC, Mai X, Robbins JA, LeBoff MS, Chen Z, Jackson RD, LaCroix AZ, Ockene JK, Hovey KM (2019) Cauley JA (2019) Association of physical activity and fracture risk among postmenopausal women. JAMA Netw Open. 2(10):e1914084 - PubMed - PMC
NOF (2021) Available at http://www.nof.org/patients/treatment/medicationadherence/
Saag KG, Emkey R, Schnitzer TJ et al (1998) Glucocorticoid-Induced Osteoporosis Intervention Study Group. Alendronate for the prevention and treatment of glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis. NEJM. 339(5):292–299 - PubMed
Black DM, Cummings SR, Karpf DB et al. Fracture Intervention Trial Research Study Group (1996) Randomised trial of effect of alendronate on risk of fracture in women with existing vertebral fractures. Lancet 348(9041):1535-1541
Cummings SR, Black DM, Thompson DE et al (1998) Effect of alendronate on risk of fracture in women with low bone density but without vertebral fractures: results from the Fracture Intervention Trial. JAMA 280(24):2077–2082 - PubMed
Chesnut CH 3rd, Skag A, Christiansen C et al (2004) Oral Ibandronate Osteoporosis Vertebral Fracture Trial in North America and Europe (BONE). Effects of oral ibandronate administered daily or intermittently on fracture risk in postmenopausal osteoporosis. J Bone Miner Res 19(8):1241–1249 - PubMed
Eastell R, Devogelaer JP, Peel NF et al (2000) Prevention of bone loss with risedronate in glucocorticoid-treated rheumatoid arthritis patients. Osteoporos Int 11(4):331–337 - PubMed
McClung MR, Benhamou CL, Man Z et al (2013) A novel monthly dosing regimen of risedronate for the treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis: 2-year data. Calcif Tissue Int 92(1):59–67 - PubMed
Barrionuevo PM, Kapoor E, Asi N et al (2019) Efficacy of pharmacological therapies for the prevention of fractures in postmenopausal women: a network meta-analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 104(5):1623–1630 - PubMed
Reid IR, Horne AM, Mihov B et al (2018) Fracture prevention with zoledronate in older women with osteopenia. N Engl J Med 379(25):2407–2416 - PubMed
U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (2017) Reclast (zoledronic acid): drug safety communication - new contraindication and updated warning on kidney impairment. [Correction in: Endocr Pract. 2017 23(12):1488. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/ucm270199.htm/ Accessed August 2018.
Patel DV, Bolland M, Nisa Z et al (2015) Incidence of ocular side effects with intravenous zoledronate: secondary analysis of a randomized controlled trial. Osteoporos Int 26(2):499–503 - PubMed
Rossouw JE, Anderson GL, Prentice RL et al. Writing Group for the Women's Health Initiative Investigators (2002) Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women: principle results from the Women’s Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA 288(3):321-333
Crandall CJ, Hovey KM, Andrews C et al (2017) Comparison of clinical outcomes among users of oral and transdermal estrogen therapy in the Women’s Health Initiative Observational Study. Menopause 24(10):1145–1153 - PubMed - PMC
Eastell R, Rosen CJ, Black DM, Cheung AM, Murad MH, Shoback D (2019) Pharmacological management of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 104(5):1595–1622 - PubMed
Manson JE, Allison MA, Rossouw JE, Carr JJ et al WHI and WHI-CACS Investigators (2007) Estrogen therapy and coronary-artery calcification. N Engl J Med 356:2591–2602
The NAMS (2017) Hormone Therapy Position Statement Advisory Panel (2017) The 2017 hormone therapy position statement of The North American Menopause Society. Menopause 24(7):728–753
Cobin RH, Goodman NF; AACE Reproductive Endocrinology Scientific Committee (2017) American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and American College of Endocrinology position statement on menopause-2017 Update. Endocr Pract 23(7):869-80. (Erratum in: Endocr Pract 2017 23[12]:1488)
Rhoda H. Cobin RH, Goodman NF: AACE Reproductive Endocrinology Scientific Committee (2017) American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and American College of Endocrinology position statement on menopause-2017 UPDATE. Endocr Pract 23(7):869-880
Cauley JA, Norton L, Lippman ME et al (2001) Continued breast cancer risk reduction in postmenopausal women treated with raloxifene: 4-year results from the MORE trial. Multiple outcomes of raloxifene evaluation. Breast Cancer Res Treat 65(2):125–134 - PubMed
Martino S, Cauley, JA, Barrett-Connor E et al. CORE Investigators (2004) Continuing outcomes relevant to Evista: breast cancer incidence in postmenopausal osteoporotic women in a randomized trial of raloxifene. J Natl Cancer Inst 96(23):1751-1761
Vogel VG, Costantino JP, Wickerham DL et al. National Surgical Adjuvent Breast and Bowel Project (NSABP) (2006) Effects of tamoxifen vs. raloxifene on the risk of developing invasive breast cancer and other disease outcomes: the NSABP Study of Tamoxifen and Raloxifene (STAR) P-2 trial. JAMA 295(23):2727-2741
Barrett-Connor E, Mosca L, Collins P et al. Raloxifene Use for The Heart (RUTH) Trial Investigators (2006) Effects of raloxifene on cardiovascular events and breast cancer in postmenopausal women. N Engl J Med 355(2):125-137
Gennari L, Merlotti D, De Paola V, Martini G, Nuti R (2008) Bazedoxifene for the prevention of postmenopausal osteoporosis. Ther Clin Risk Manag 4(6):1229–1242 - PubMed - PMC
Lindsay R, Gallagher JC, Kagan R, Pickar JH, Constantine G (2009) Efficacy of tissue-selective estrogen complex of bazedoxifene/conjugated estrogens for osteoporosis prevention in at-risk postmenopausal women. Fertil Steril 92(3):1045–1052 - PubMed
Mirkin S, Komm BS, Pan K, Chines AA (2013) Effects of bazedoxifene/conjugated estrogens on endometrial safety and bone in postmenopausal women. Climacteric 16(3):338–346 - PubMed
Pinkerton JV, Pickar JH, Racketa J, Mirkin S (2012) Bazedoxifene/conjugated estrogens for menopausal symptom treatment and osteoporosis prevention. Climacteric 15(5):411–418 - PubMed
Saag K, Shane E, Boonen S (2007) Teriparatide or alendronate in glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis. N Engl J Med 357(20):2028–2039 - PubMed
Neer RM, Arnaud CD, Zanchetta JR et al (2001) Effect of parathyroid hormone (1-34) on fractures and bone mineral density in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. N Engl J Med 344(19):1434–1441 - PubMed
Kendler DL, Marin F, Zerbini CAF et al (2018) Effects of teriparatide and risedronate on new fractures in post-menopausal women with severe osteoporosis (VERO): a multicentre, double-blind, double-dummy, randomised controlled trial. Lancet 391(10117):230–240 - PubMed
Eli Lilly and Company. FORTEO — teriparatide injection, solution. Highlights of prescribing information. Revised: 4/2021. Available at: https://uspl.lilly.com/forteo/forteo.html#pi/ Accessed December 2021.
Miller PD, Hattersley G, Riis BJ et al. ACTIVE Study Investigators (2016) Effect of abaloparatide vs placebo on new vertebral fractures in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 316(7):722-733
Cosman F, Miller PD, Williams GC et al (2017) Eighteen months of treatment with subcutaneous abaloparatide followed by 6 months of treatment with alendronate in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis: results of the ACTIVExtend Trial. Mayo Clin Proc 2017 Feb 92(2):200–210
Cummings SR, San Martin J, McClung MR, FREEDOM Trial et al (2009) Denosumab for prevention of fractures in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. N Engl J Med 361(8):756–765 (Erratum in: N Engl J Med 2009;361[19]:1914) - PubMed
Zaheer S, LeBoff M, Lewiecki EM (2015) Denosumab for the treatment of osteoporosis. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 11(3):461–470 - PubMed - PMC
Bilezikian JP, Lin CJF, Brown JP et al (2019) Long-term denosumab treatment restores cortical bone loss and reduces fracture risk at the forearm and humerus: analyses from the FREEDOM Extension cross-over group. Osteoporos Int 30(9):1855–1864 - PubMed - PMC
Papapoulos S, Lippuner K, Roux C et al (2015) The effect of 8 or 5 years of denosumab treatment in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis: results from the FREEDOM Extension study. Osteoporos Int 26(12):2773–2783 - PubMed - PMC
Watts NB, Roux C, Modlin JF et al (2012) Infections in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis treated with denosumab or placebo: coincidence or causal association? Osteoporos Int 23(1):327–337 - PubMed
Choi NK, Solomon DH, Tsacogianis TN, Landon JE, Song HJ, Kim SC (2017) Comparative safety and effectiveness of denosumab versus zoledronic acid in patients with osteoporosis: a cohort study. J Bone Miner Res 32(3):611–617 - PubMed
U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Prolia® (denosumab) highlights of prescribing information. Available online at: https://www.proliahcp.com/?gclid=Cj0KCQjwjOrtBRCcARIsAEq4rW7usz0F7Zns1WR... Accessed 10/2019.
Cummings SR, Ferrari S, Eastell R et al (2018) Vertebral fractures after discontinuation of denosumab: a post hoc analysis of the randomized placebo-controlled FREEDOM Trial and its extension. J Bone Miner Res 33:190–198 - PubMed
Leder BZ, Tsai JN, Uihlein AV et al (2015) Denosumab and teriparatide transitions in postmenopausal osteoporosis (the DATA-Switch study): extension of a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 386:1147–1155 - PubMed - PMC
Keaveny TM, Crittenden DB, Bolognese MA et al (2017) Greater gains in spine and hip strength for romosozumab compared with teriparatide in postmenopausal women with low bone mass. J Bone Miner Res 32(9):1956–1962 - PubMed
Keaveny TM, Crittenden DB, Bolognese MA et al (2017) Effects of romosozumab compared with teriparatide on bone density and mass at the spine and hip in postmenopausal women with low bone mass. J Bone Miner Res 32(1):181–187
Cosman F, Crittenden DB, Adachi JD et al (2016) Romosozumab treatment in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. N Engl J Med 375(16):1532–1543 - PubMed
Saag KG, Petersen J, Brandi ML et al (2017) Romosozumab or alendronate for fracture prevention in women with osteoporosis. N Engl J Med 377(15):1417–1427 - PubMed
Cosman F, Crittenden DB, Ferrari S et al (2018) Romosozumab FRAME Study: a post hoc analysis of the role of regional background fracture risk on nonvertebral fracture outcome. J Bone Miner Res 33(8):1407–1416 - PubMed
McClung MR, Brown JP, Diez-Perez A et al (2018) Effects of 24 months of treatment with romosozumab followed by 12 months of denosumab or placebo in postmenopausal women with low bone mineral density: a randomized, double-blind, phase 2, parallel group study. J Bone Miner Res 33(8):1397–1406 - PubMed
Chesnut CH 3rd, Silverman S, Andriano K et al (2000) A randomized trial of nasal spray salmon calcitonin in postmenopausal women with established osteoporosis: the prevent recurrence of osteoporotic fractures study. PROOF Study Group. Am J Med 109(4):267–276
Lyritis GP, Paspati I, Karachalios T, Ioakimidis D, Skarantavos G, Lyritis PG (1997) Pain relief from nasal salmon calcitonin in osteoporotic vertebral crush fractures. A double blind, placebo-controlled clinical study. Acta Orthop Scand Suppl 275:112–114 - PubMed
Lyritis GP, Ioannidis GV, Karachalios T et al (1999) Analgesic effect of salmon calcitonin suppositories in patients with acute pain due to recent osteoporotic vertebral crush fractures: a prospective double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled. Clin J Pain 15(4):284–289 - PubMed
Overman RA, Borse M, Gourlay ML (2013) Salmon calcitonin use and associated cancer risk. Ann Pharmacother 47(12):1675–1684 - PubMed
Food and Drug Administration. Questions and answers: changes to the indicated population for miacalcin (calcitonin-salmon). Available online at: https://www.fda.gov/drugs/postmarket-drug-safety-information-patients-an... Accessed August 2018.
Khosla S, Burr D, Cauley J et al. American Society for Bone and Mineral Research (2007) Bisphosphonate-associated osteonecrosis of the jaw: report of a task force of the American Society for Bone and Mineral Research. J Bone Miner Res 22(10):1470-1491
Woo S, Hellstein J, Kalmar J (2006) Systematic review: Bisphosphonates and osteonecrosis of the jaws. Ann Intern Med 144(10):753–761 [published correction appears in Ann Intern Med. 2006 Aug 1;145(3):235].
Khan AA, Morrison A, Hanley DA et al. International Task Force on Osteonecrosis of the Jaw (2015) Diagnosis and management of osteonecrosis of the jaw: a systematic review and international consensus. J Bone Miner Res 30(1):3-23
Boquete-Castro A, Gómez-Moreno G, Calvo-Guirado JL, Aguilar-Salvatierra A, Delgado-Ruiz RA (2016) Denosumab and osteonecrosis of the jaw. A systematic analysis of events reported in clinical trials. Clin Oral Implants Res 27(3):367–375 - PubMed
Yarom N, Shapiro CL, Peterson DE et al (2019) Medication-related osteonecrosis of the jaw: MASCC/ISOO/ASCO Clinical Practice Guideline. J Clin Oncol 37(25):2270–2290 - PubMed
American Dental Association. Osteoporosis medications and medication-related osteonecrosis of the jaw. Oral Health Topics. Available at: https://www.ada.org/en/member-center/oral-health-topics/osteoporosis-med... Accessed January 2019.
Fusco V, Santini D, Campisi G et al (2019) Medication-related osteonecrosis of the jaw: MASCC/ISOO/ASCO Clinical Practice Guideline. J Clin Oncol 37(25):2270–2290
Black DM, Abrahamsen B, Bouxsein ML, Einhorn T, Napoli N (2019) Atypical femur fractures - review of epidemiology, relationship to bisphosphonates, prevention. and clinical management. Endocr Rev 40(2):333–368 - PubMed
Starr J, Tay YKD, Shane E (2018) Current understanding of epidemiology, pathophysiology, and management of atypical femur fractures. Curr Osteoporos Rep 16:519–529 - PubMed - PMC
Shane E, Burr D, Abrahmsen B et al (2014) American Society for Bone and Mineral Research. Atypical subtrochanteric and diaphyseal femoral fractures: Second report of a task force of the American Society for Bone and Mineral Research. J Bone Miner Res 29(1):1–23 - PubMed
McKenna MJ, McKiernan FE, McGowan B et al (2017) Identifying incomplete atypical femoral fractures with single-energy absorptiometry: declining prevalence. J Endocr Soc 1(3):211–220 - PubMed - PMC
Greenspan SL, Vujevich K, Britton C et al (2018) Teriparatide for treatment of patients with bisphosphonate-associated atypical fracture of the femur. Osteoporos Int 29(2):501–506 - PubMed
Black DM, Geiger EJ, Eastell R, et al. (2020) Atypical femur fracture risk versus fragility fracture prevention with bisphosphonates N Engl J Med. Aug 20;383(8):743-753
Amgen (2020) Extension study to evaluate the long term safety and efficacy of denosumab in the treatment of osteoporosis. (ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT00523341) Retrieved from https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/study/NCT00523341
Bone HG, Wagman RB, Brandi ML et al (2017) 10 years of denosumab treatment in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis: results from the phase 3 randomised FREEDOM trial and open-label extension. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 5(7):513–523 - PubMed
van de Laarschot DM, McKenna MJ, Abrahamsen B et al (2020) Medical management of patients after atypical femur fractures: a systematic review and recommendations from the European Calcified Tissue Society. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 105(5):1682–1699
Schilcher J, Michaelsson K, Aspenberg P (2011) Bisphosphonate use and atypical fractures of the femoral shaft. N Engl J Med 364:1728–1737 - PubMed
Dell RM, Al A, Greene DF et al (2012) Incidence of atypical nontraumatic diaphyseal fractures of the femur. J Bone Miner Res 27:2544–2550 - PubMed
Harris ST, Watts NB, Genant HK et al (1999) Vertebral Efficacy with Risedronate Therapy (VERT) Study Group. Effects of risedronate treatment on vertebral and nonvertebral fractures in women with postmenopausal osteoporosis: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 282(14):1344–1352 - PubMed
Reginster J, Minne HW, Sorensen OH et al (2000) Randomized trial of the effects of risedronate on vertebral fractures in women with established postmenopausal osteoporosis. Vertebral Efficacy with Risedronate Therapy (VERT) Study Group. Osteoporos Int 11(1):83–91 - PubMed
Kanis JA, Barton IP, Johnell O (2005) Risedronate decreases fracture risk in patients selected solely on the basis of prior vertebral fracture. Osteoporos Int 16(5):475–482 - PubMed
Ettinger B, Black DM, Mitlak BH et al (1999) Reduction of vertebral fracture risk in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis treated with raloxifene: results from a 3-year randomized clinical trial. Multiple Outcomes of Raloxifene Evaluation (MORE) Investigators. JAMA 18 282(7):637–645 (Erratum in: JAMA. 1999;282[22]:2124)
Lyles KW, Colón-Emeric CS, Magaziner JS et al. HORIZON Recurrent Fracture Trial (2007) Zoledronic acid and clinical fractures and mortality after hip fracture. N Eng J Med 357(18):1799-1809
Eftekhar-Sadat B, Ghavami M, Toopchizadeh V, Ghahvechi Akbari M (2016) Wrist bone mineral density utility in diagnosing hip osteoporosis in postmenopausal women. Ther Adv Endocrinol Metab 7(5-6):207–211 - PubMed - PMC
Black DM, Schwartz AV, Ensrud KE et al. FLEX Research Group (2006) Effects of continuing or stopping alendronate after 5 years of treatment: The Fracture Intervention Trial Long-term Extension (FLEX): a randomized trial. JAMA 296(24):2927–2938
Miller PD, McClung MR, Macovei L et al (2005) Monthly oral ibandronate therapy in postmenopausal osteoporosis: 1-year results from the MOBILE study. J Bone Miner Res 20(8):1315–1322 - PubMed
Reginster JY, Adami S, Lakatos P et al (2006) Efficacy and tolerability of once-monthly oral ibandronate in postmenopausal osteoporosis: 2-year results from the MOBILE study. Ann Rheu Dis 65(5):654–661
Eisman JA, Civitelli R, Adami S et al (2008) Efficacy and tolerability of intravenous ibandronate injections in postmenopausal osteoporosis: 2-year results from the DIVA study. J Rheumatol 35(3):488–497 - PubMed
McClung MR, Geusens P, Miller PD et al. Hip Intervention Program Study Group (2001) Effect of risedronate on the risk of hip fracture in elderly women. N Engl J Med 344(5):333-340
Black DM, Delmas PD, Eastell R et al (2007) HORIZON Pivotal Fracture Trial Group (2003) Once-yearly zoledronic acid for treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis. N Eng J Med 0. 356(18):1809–1822
Sorensen OH, Crawford GM, Mulder H, et al. Long-term efficacy of risedronate: a 5-year placebo-controlled clinical experience. Bone 32:(2):120-126
Anderson GL, Limacher M, Assaf AR, Women’s Health Initiative Steering Committee et al (2004) Effects of conjugated equine estrogen in postmenopausal women with hysterectomy: the Women’s Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA 291(14):1701–1712 - PubMed
Cosman F, Hattersley G, Hu MY, Williams GC, Fitzpatrick LA, Black DM (2017) Effects of abaloparatide-SC on fractures and bone mineral density in subgroups of postmenopausal women with osteoporosis and varying baseline risk factors. J Bone Miner Res 32(1):17–23 - PubMed
Kanis JA, Johansson H, Oden A et al (2010) The effects of a revision for the USA. Osteoporos Int 21(1):35–40 - PubMed
Cummings SR, Cosman F, Lewiecki EM et al (2017) Goal-directed treatment for osteoporosis: a progress report from the ASBMR-NOF working group on goal-directed treatment for osteoporosis. J Bone Miner Res 32:3–10 - PubMed
Roux C, Briot K (2017) Imminent fracture risk. Osteoporos Int 28(6):1765–1769 - PubMed
Tsai JN, Uihlein AV, Burnett-Bowie SA et al (2015) Comparative effects of teriparatide, denosumab, and combination therapy on peripheral compartmental bone density, microarchitecture, and estimated strength: the DATA-HRpQCT Study. J Bone Miner Res 30(1):39–45 - PubMed
Leder BZ, Tsai JN, Neer RM, Uihlein AV, Wallace PM, Burnett-Bowie SA (2016) Response to therapy with teriparatide, denosumab, or both in postmenopausal women in the DATA (Denosumab And Teriparatide Administration) Study randomized controlled trial. J Clin Densitom 19(3):346–351 - PubMed
Lou S, Lv H, Li Z, Tang P (2018) Combination therapy of anabolic agents and bisphosphonates on bone mineral density in patients with osteoporosis: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ Open 8:e015187 - PubMed - PMC
Cosman F, Nieves JW, Dempster DW (2017) Treatment sequence matters: anabolic and antiresorptive therapy for osteoporosis. J Bone Miner Res 32:198–202 - PubMed
Tsai JN, Lee H, David NL, Eastell R, Leder BZ (2019) Combination denosumab and high dose teriparatide for postmenopausal osteoporosis (DATA-HD): a randomised, controlled phase 4 trial. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 7(10):767–775
Tsai JN, Uihlein AV, Burnett-Bowie SM et al (2016) Effects of two years of teriparatide, denosumab, or both on bone microarchitecture and strength (DATA-HRpQCT study). J Clin Endocrinol Metab 101(5):2023–2030 - PubMed - PMC
Haas AV, LeBoff MS (2018) Osteoanabolic agents for osteoporosis. J Endocr Soc 2(8):922–932 - PubMed - PMC
Obermayer-Pietsch BM, Marin F, McCloskey EV et al. EUROFORS Investigators (2008) Effects of two years of daily teriparatide treatment on BMD in postmenopausal women with severe osteoporosis with and without prior antiresorptive treatment. J Bone Miner Res 23(10):1591–1600
Boonen S, Marin F, Obermayer-Pietsch B et al. EUROFORS Investigators (2008). Effects of previous antiresorptive therapy on the bone mineral density response to two years of teriparatide treatment in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 93(3):852–860
Miller PD, Delmas PD, Lindsay R et al. Open-label Study to Determine How Prior Therapy with Alendronate or Risedronate in Postmenopausal Women with Osteoporosis Influences the Clinical Effectiveness of Teriparatide Investigators (2008) Early responsiveness of women with osteoporosis to teriparatide after therapy with alendronate or risedronate. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 93(10):3785-3793
Modi A, Siris ES, Tang J, Sen S (2015) Cost and consequences of noncompliance with osteoporosis treatment among women initiating therapy. Curr Med Res Opin 31(4):757-765
Hui RL, Adams AL, Niu F et al (2017) Predicting adherence and persistence with oral bisphosphonate therapy in an integrated health care delivery system. J Manag Care Spec Pharm 23(4):503–512
Raybould G, Babatunde O, Evans AL, Jordan JL, Paskins Z (2018) Expressed information needs of patients with osteoporosis and/or fragility fractures: a systematic review. Arch Osteoporos 13(1):55
Ross S, Samuels E, Gairy K, Iqbal S, Badamgarav E, Siris E (2011) A meta-analysis of osteoporotic fracture risk with medication nonadherence. Value Health 14:571–581 - PubMed
Lewiecki EM (2010) The role of risk communication in the care of osteoporosis. Curr Osteoporos Rep 9:141–148
Lindsay BR, Olufade T, Bauer J, Babrowicz J, Hahn R (2016) Patient-reported barriers to osteoporosis therapy. Arch Osteoporos 11(1):19 - PubMed - PMC
Scoville EA, Ponce de Leon Lovaton P, Shah ND, Pencille LJ, Montori VM (2011) Why do women reject bisphosphonates for osteoporosis? A videographic study. PLoS One 6:e18468 - PubMed
Yood RA, Mazor KM, Andrade SE, Emani S, Chan W, Kahler KH (2008) Patient decision to initiate therapy for osteoporosis: the influence of knowledge and beliefs. J Gen Intern Med 23:1815–1821 - PubMed - PMC
Yu J, Brenneman SK, Sazonov V, Modi A (2015) Reasons for not initiating osteoporosis therapy among a managed care population. Patient Prefer Adherence 9:821–830 - PubMed - PMC
Barrionuevo PM, Gionfriddo MR, Castaneda-Guarderas A et al (2019) Women’s values and preferences regarding osteoporosis osteoporosis treatments: a systematic review. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 104(5):1631–1636 - PubMed - PMC
Hall SF, Edmonds SW, Lou Y et al (2017) Patient-reported reasons for nonadherence to recommended osteoporosis pharmacotherapy. J Am Pharm Assoc. 57(4):503–509
National Osteoporosis Foundation (2019) Patient Perception of Value in Healthcare: Osteoporosis and Bone Fragility A Patient-Oriented Value (POV™) Report. Prepared by Connect 4 Strategies, LLC, on behalf of National Osteoporosis Foundation. July 29, 2019
Lewiecki EM, Binkley N, Bilezikian JP (2019) Treated osteoporosis is still osteoporosis. J Bone Miner Res 34(4):605–606 - PubMed
Black DM, Reid IR, Boonen S et al (2012) The effect of 3 versus 6 years of zoledronic acid treatment of osteoporosis: a randomized extension to the HORIZON-Pivotal Fracture Trial (PFT). J Bone Miner Res 27:243–254 (Erratum in: J Bone Miner Res. 2012 Dec;27[12]:2612) - PubMed
Black DM, Bauer DC, Schwartz AV, Cummings SR, Rosen CJ (2012) Continuing bisphosphonate treatment for osteoporosis--for whom and for how long? N Engl J Med 366(22):2051–2053 - PubMed - PMC
Boonen S, Ferrari S, Miller PD (2012) Postmenopausal osteoporosis treatment with antiresorptives: effects of discontinuation or long-term continuation on bone turnover and fracture risk—a perspective. J Bone Miner Res. 27(5):963–974 - PubMed
Miller PD, Bolognese MA, Lewiecki EM et al AMG Bone Loss Study Group (2008) Effect of denosumab on bone density and turnover in postmenopausal women with low bone mass after long-term continued, discontinued, and restarting of therapy: a randomized blinded phase 2 clinical trial. Bone 43:222–229
Tsourdi E, Langdahl B, Cohen-Solal M et al (2017) Discontinuation of denosumab therapy for osteoporosis: a systematic review and position statement by ECTS. Bone 105:11–17 - PubMed
Nayak S, Greenspan SL (2017) Osteoporosis treatment efficacy for men: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Geriatr Soc 65(3):490–495 - PubMed
Smith MR, Egerdie B, Hernández Toriz N et al. Denosumab HALT Prostate Cancer Study Group (2009) Denosumab in men receiving androgen-deprivation therapy for prostate cancer. N Engl J Med 361(8):745–755
Brown-Glaberman U, Stopeck AT (2013) Impact of denosumab on bone mass in cancer patients. Clin Pharmacol 5:117–129 - PubMed - PMC
Overman RA, Toliver JC, Yeh JY, Gourlay ML, Deal CL (2014) United States adults meeting 2010 American College of Rheumatology criteria for treatment and prevention of glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken). 66:1644–1652 - PubMed
Compston J (2018) Glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis: an update. Endocrine. 61(1):7–16 - PubMed - PMC
van Staa TP, Leufkens HG, Abenhaim L et al (2000) Rheumatology (Oxford) 39(12):1383–1389
Donnan PT, Libby G, Boyter AC, Thompson P (2005 Mar) The population risk of fractures attributable to oral corticosteroids. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 14(3):177–186 - PubMed
Allen CS, Yeung JH (2016) Bisphosphonates for steroid-induced osteoporosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 10:CD001347 - PubMed
Saag KG, Zanchetta JR, Devogelaer JP et al (2009) Effects of teriparatide versus alendronate for treating glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis: thirty-six-month results of a randomized, double-blind, controlled trial. Arthritis Rheu 60(11):3346–3355
Yanbeiy ZA, Hansen KE (2019) Denosumab in the treatment of glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Drug Des Devel Ther 13:2843–2852 - PubMed - PMC
Saag KG, Wagman RB, Geusens P et al (2018) Denosumab versus risedronate in glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis: a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, active-controlled, double-dummy, non-inferiority study. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 6(6):445–454 - PubMed
Toulis KA, Anastasilakis AD (2010) Increased risk of serious infections in women with osteopenia or osteoporosis treated with denosumab. Osteoporos Int 21(11):1963-1964. Epub 2009 Dec 15. No abstract available. (Erratum in: Osteoporos Int 2010 Nov;21[11]:1965)
Curtis JR, Xie F, Yun H, Saag KG, Chen L, Delzell E (2015) Risk of hospitalized infection among rheumatoid arthritis patients concurrently treated with a biologic agent and denosumab. Arthritis Rheumatol 67(6):1456–1464 - PubMed
Lau AN, Wong-Pack M, Rodjanapiches R et al (2018) Occurrence of serious infection in patients with rheumatoid arthritis treated with biologics and denosumab observed in a clinical setting. J Rheumatol 45(2):170–176 - PubMed
Boonen S, Black DM, Colón-Emeric CS et al (2010) Efficacy and safety of a once-yearly intravenous zoledronic acid 5 mg for fracture prevention in elderly postmenopausal women with osteoporosis aged 75 and older. J Am Geriatr Soc 58(2):292–299 - PubMed - PMC
McClung MR, Boonen S, Törring O et al (2012) Effect of denosumab treatment on the risk of fractures in subgroups of women with postmenopausal osteoporosis. J Bone Min Res 27:211–218
Boonen S, Marin F, Mellstrom D (2006) Safety and efficacy of teriparatide in elderly women with established osteoporosis: bone anabolic therapy from a geriatric perspective. J Am Geriatr Soc 54(5):782–789 - PubMed
Greenspan SL, Schneider DL, McClung MR et al (2002) Alendronate improves bone mineral density in elderly women with osteoporosis residing in long-term care facilities. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 136(10):742–746 - PubMed
Greenspan SL, Perera S, Ferchak MA, Nace DA, Resnick NM (2015) Efficacy and safety of single-dose zoledronic acid for osteoporosis in frail elderly women: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med 175(6):913–921 - PubMed - PMC
Bonnick SL (2013) Dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry: interpreting reports and serial measurements. Clin Obstet Gynecol 56(4):677–685 - PubMed
Qaseem A, Forciea MA, McLean RM, Denberg TD; Clinical Guidelines Committee of the American College of Physicians (2017) Treatment of low bone density or osteoporosis to prevent fractures in men and women: a clinical practice guideline update from the American College of Physicians. Ann Intern Med 166(11):818–839
Nishiyama KK, Macdonald HM, Hanley DA, Boyd SK (2013) Women with previous fragility fractures can be classified based on bone microarchitecture and finite element analysis measured with HR-pQCT. Osteoporos Int 24(5):1733–1740 - PubMed
Viceconti M, Qasim M, Bhattacharya P, Li X (2018) Are CT-based finite element model predictions of femoral bone strengthening clinically useful? Curr Osteoporos Rep 16(3):216–223 - PubMed - PMC
Oei L, Koromani F, Rivadeneira F, Zillikens MC, Oei EH (2016) Quantitative imaging methods in osteoporosis. Quant Imaging Med Surg 6(6):680–698 - PubMed - PMC
Vasikaran S, Eastell R, Bruyère O et al. IOF-IFCC Bone Marker Standards Working Group (2011) Markers of bone turnover for the prediction of fracture risk and monitoring of osteoporosis treatment: a need for international reference standards. Osteoporos Int 22(2):391–420
Melton LJIII (1995) How many women have osteoporosis now? J Bone Miner Res 10:175–177 - PubMed
Schnell S, Friedman SM, Mendelson DA, Bingham KW, Kates SL (2010) The 1-year mortality of patients treated in a hip fracture program for elders. Geriatr Orthop Surg Rehabil 1(1):6–14
Forsén L, Sogaard AJ, Meyer HE, Edna T, Kopjar B (1999) Survival after hip fracture: short and long term excess mortality according to age and gender. Osteoporos Int 10(1):73–78 - PubMed
Kado DM, Duong T, Stone KL et al (2003) Incident vertebral fractures and mortality in older women: a prospective study. Osteoporos Int 14(7):589–594 - PubMed
Ensrud KE, Thompson DE, Cauley JA et al (2000) Prevalent vertebral deformities predict mortality and hospitalization in older women with low bone mass. Fracture Intervention Trial Research Group. J Am Geriatr Soc 48(3):241–249
Pan PJ, Lin PH, Tang GJ, Lan TY (2018) Comparisons of mortality and rehospitalization between hip-fractured elderly with outpatient rehabilitation and those without: A STROBE-compliant article. Medicine (Baltimore) 97(19):e0644
Tedesco D, Gibertoni D, Rucci P et al (2018) Impact of rehabilitation on mortality and readmissions after surgery for hip fracture. BMC Health Serv Res. 18(1):701 - PubMed - PMC
Latham NK, Harris BA, Bean JF et al (2014) Effect of a home-based exercise program on functional recovery following rehabilitation after hip fracture: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 311(7):700–708 - PubMed - PMC
Vochteloo AJ, Moerman S, Tuinebreijer WE et al (2013) More than half of hip fracture patients do not regain mobility in the first postoperative year. Geriatr Gerontol Int 13(2):334–341 - PubMed
Greendale GA, Barrett-Connor E (1996) Outcomes of osteoporotic fractures. In: Marcus R, Freedman D, Kelsey J (eds) Osteoporosis. Academy Press, Orlando, FL
Marottoli RA, Berkman LF, Cooney LM Jr (1992) Decline in physical function following hip fracture. J Am Geriatr Soc 4(9):861–866
Dyer SM, Crotty M, Fairhall N et al. Fragility Fracture Network (FFN) Rehabilitation Research Special Interest Group (2016) A critical review of the long-term disability outcomes following hip fracture. BMC Geriatr 16(1):158
Alexandru D, So W (2012) Evaluation and management of vertebral compression fractures. Perm J 16(4):46–51 - PubMed - PMC
Leech JA, Dulberg C, Kellie S, Pattee L, Gay J (1990) Relationship of lung function to severity of osteoporosis in women. Am Rev Respir Dis 141:68–71 - PubMed
Leidig G, Minne HW, Sauer P et al (1990) A study of complaints and their relation to vertebral destruction in patients with osteoporosis. J Bone Miner Res 8(3):217–229
Kortebein P, Symons TB, Ferrando A et al (2008) Functional impact of 10 days of bed rest in healthy older adults. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 63(10):1076–1081 - PubMed
Krolner B, Toft B (1983) Vertebral bone loss: an unheeded side effect of therapeutic bed rest. Clin Sci Br 64(5):537–540
Kato T, Inose H, Ichimura S et al (2019) Comparison of rigid and soft-brace treatments for acute osteoporotic vertebral compression fracture: a prospective, randomized, multicenter study. J Clin Med 8(2):198
Ware LC (1993) Internal/external fixation of wrist and distal forearm fractures In: Clark GL, Wilgis EFS, Aiello B, Ckhous D, Eddington LV, eds. Hand rehabilitation, a practical guide. New York. NY: Churchill Livingstone 1993:299–305
Rozental TD, Shah J, Chacko AT, Zurakowski D (2009) Prevalence and predictors of osteoporosis risk in orthopaedic patients. Clin Orthop Relat Res 468(7):1765–1772 - PMC
Kuo LC, Yang TH, Hsu YY et al (2013) Is progressive early digit mobilization intervention beneficial for patients with external fixation of distal radius fracture? A pilot randomized controlled trial. Clin Rehabil 27(11):983–993 - PubMed
The Interagency Pain Research Coordinating Committee (2018) National Pain Strategy: a comprehensive population health-level strategy for pain. Available at: https://www.iprcc.nih.gov/national-pain-strategy-overview Accessed (December 2019)
The Joint Commission (2017) Pain assessment and management standards for hospitals. R3 Report|Requirement, Rationale, Reference. Issue 11, August 29, 2017. Available online at: https://jntcm.ae-admin.com/assets/1/6/R3_Report_Issue_11_Pain_Assessment... Accessed July 2019.
Nafziger AN, Barkin RL (2018) Opioid therapy in acute and chronic pain. J Clin Pharmacol 58(9):1111–1122 - PubMed
Buchbinder R, Johnston RV, Rischin KJ et al (2018) Percutaneous vertebroplasty for osteoporotic vertebral compression fracture. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 4:CD006349 - PubMed
Wang B, Zhao CP, Song LX, Zhu L (2018) Balloon kyphoplasty versus percutaneous vertebroplasty for osteoporotic vertebral compression fracture: a meta-analysis and systematic review. J Orthop Surg Res 13(1):264 - PubMed - PMC
Mattie R, Laimi K, Yu S, Saltychev M (2016) Comparing percutaneous vertebroplasty and conservative therapy for treating osteoporotic compression fractures in the thoracic and lumbar spine: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Bone Joint Surg Am 98(12):1041–1051 - PubMed
Rodriguez AJ, Fink HA, Mirigian L et al (2017) Pain, quality of life, and safety outcomes of kyphoplasty for vertebral compression fractures: report of a task force of the American Society for Bone and Mineral Research. J Bone Miner Res 32(9):1935–1344 - PubMed
Boonen S, Van Meirhaeghe J, Bastian L et al (2011) Balloon kyphoplasty for the treatment of acute vertebral compression fractures: 2-year results from a randomized trial. J Bone Miner Res 26(7):1627–1637 - PubMed
Blasco J, Martinez-Ferrer A, Macho J et al (2012) Effect of vertebroplasty on pain relief, quality of life, and the incidence of new vertebral fractures: a 12-month randomized follow-up. controlled trial. J Bone Miner Res 27(5):1159–1166 - PubMed
Ebeling PR, Akesson K, Bauer DC et al (2019) The efficacy and safety of vertibral augmentation: a second ASBMR Task Force report. J Bone Miner Res 34(1): 3–21
Chen Z, Wu Y, Ning S, Ma T, Wu Z (2019) Risk factors of secondary vertebral compression fracture after percutaneous vertebroplasty or kyphoplasty: a retrospective study of 650 patients. Med Sci Monit 25:9255–9261 - PubMed - PMC
Zhang H, Xu C, Zhang T, Gao Z, Zhang T (2017) Does percutaneous vertebroplasty or balloon kyphoplasty for osteoporotic vertebral compression fractures increase the incidence of new vertebral fractures? A meta-analysis. Pain Physician 20(1):E13–E28 - PubMed
Li HM, Zhang RJ, Gao H et al (2018) New vertebral fractures after osteoporotic vertebral compression fracture between balloon kyphoplasty and nonsurgical treatment PRISMA. Medicine (Baltimore) 97(40):e12666
Voormolen MH, Lohle PN, Lampmann LE et al (2006) Prospective clinical follow-up after percutaneous vertebroplasty in patients with painful osteoporotic vertebral compression fractures. J Vasc Interv Radiol 17(8):1313–1320 - PubMed
Markozannes G, Aretouli E, Rintou E et al (2017) An umbrella review of the literature on the effectiveness of psychological interventions for pain reduction. BMC Psychol 5(1):31 - PubMed - PMC
Eccleston C, Crombez G (2017) Advancing psychological therapies for chronic pain. F1000Res 6:461. Published 2017 Apr 11.
Kamper SJ, Apeldoorn AT, Chiarotto A et al (2015) Multidisciplinary biopsychosocial rehabilitation for chronic low back pain: Cochrane systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ h444:350
Cai G, Laslett LL, Aitken D et al (2018) Effect of zoledronic acid and denosumab in patients with low back pain and modic change: a proof-of-principle trial. J Bone Miner Res 33(5):773–782 - PubMed
Paolucci T, Saraceni VM (2016) Piccinini G (2016) Management of chronic pain in osteoporosis: challenges and solutions. J Pain Res. 9:177–186 - PubMed - PMC
Catalano A, Martino G, Morabito N et al (2017) Pain in osteoporosis: from pathophysiology to therapeutic approach. Drugs Aging 34(10):755–765 - PubMed
Lange U, Teichmann J, Uhlemann C (2005) Current knowledge about physiotherapeutic strategies in osteoporosis prevention and treatment. Rheumatol Int. 26(2):99–106 - PubMed
Finnerup NB (2019) Nonnarcotic methods of pain management. N Engl J Med 380:2440–2448 - PubMed
Witt CM, Jena S, Selim D et al (2006) Pragmatic randomized trial evaluating the clinical and economic effectiveness of acupuncture for chronic low back pain. Am J Epidemiol 164(5):487–496 - PubMed
Kremer M, Yalcin I, Goumon Y et al (2018) A dual noradrenergic mechanism for the relief of neuropathic allodynia by the antidepressant drugs duloxetine and amitriptyline. J Neurosci 38(46):9934–9954 - PubMed - PMC
Tick H, Nielsen A, Pelletier KR et al. Pain Task Force of the Academic Consortium for Integrative Medicine and Health (2018) Evidence-based nonpharmacologic strategies for comprehensive pain care: the Consortium Pain Task Force white paper. Explore (NY) 14(3):177-211
Abe T, Shibao Y, Takeuchi Y et al (2018) Initial hospitalization with rigorous bed rest followed by bracing and rehabilitation as an option of conservative treatment for osteoporotic vertebral fractures in elderly patients: a pilot one arm safety and feasibility study. Arch Osteoporos 13(1):134 - PubMed - PMC
Parreira PCS, Maher CG, Megale RZ, March L, Ferreira ML (2017) An overview of clinical guidelines for the management of vertebral compression fracture: a systematic review. Spine J 17(12):1932–1938 - PubMed
Newman M, Minns Lowe C, Barker K (2016) Spinal orthoses for vertebral osteoporosis and osteoporotic vertebral fracture: a systematic review. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 97(6):1013–1025 - PubMed
Knopp-Sihota JA, Newburn-Cook CV, Homik J, Cummings GG, Voaklander D (2012) Calcitonin for treating acute and chronic pain of recent and remote osteoporotic vertebral compression fractures: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Osteoporos Int 23(1):17 - PubMed
Jalali ZM, Farghadani A, Ejlali-Vardoogh M (2019) Effect of cognitive-behavioral training on pain self-efficacy, self-discovery, and perception in patients with chronic low-back pain: a quasi-experimental study. Anesth Pain Med 9(2):e78905 - PubMed - PMC
Knoerl R, Lavoie Smith EM, Weisberg J (2016) Chronic pain and cognitive behavioral therapy: an integrative review. West J Nurs Res 38(5):596–628 - PubMed
Andronis L, Kinghorn P, Qiao S, Whitehurst DG, Durrell S, McLeod H (2017) Cost-effectiveness of non-invasive and non-pharmacological interventions for low back pain: a systematic literature review. Appl Health Econ Health Policy 15(2):173–201 - PubMed
Qaseem A, Wilt TJ, McLean RM, Forciea MA; Clinical Guidelines Committee of the American College of Physicians (2017) Noninvasive treatments for acute, subacute, and chronic low back pain: a clinical practice guideline from the American College of Physicians. Ann Intern Med 166(7):514–530
Guo Z, Chen W, Su Y, Yuan J, Zhang Y (2013) Isolated unilateral vertebral pedicle fracture caused by a back massage in an elderly patient: a case report and literature review. Eur J Orthop Surg Traumatol 23(Suppl 2):S149–S153 - PubMed
Huang WC, Lin MH, Lee MH et al (2018) Percutaneous dorsal root ganglion block for treating lumbar compression fracture-related pain. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 160(6):1283–1289 - PubMed
Zuo XH, Zhu XP, Bao HG et al (2018) Network meta-analysis of percutaneous vertebroplasty, percutaneous kyphoplasty, nerve block, and conservative treatment for nonsurgery options of acute/subacute and chronic osteoporotic vertebral compression fractures (OVCFs) in short-term and long-term effects. Medicine (Baltimore) 97(29):e11544
Ohtori S, Yamashita M, Inoue G et al (2009) L2 spinal nerve-block effects on acute low back pain from osteoporotic vertebral fracture. J Pain 10(8):870–875 - PubMed
Esses SI, McGuire R, Jenkins J et al (2011) The treatment of symptomatic osteoporotic spinal compression fractures. J Am Acad Orthop Surg 19(3):176–182 - PubMed
Hansen KA, McKernan LC, Carter SD, Allen C, Wolever RQ (2019) A replicable and sustainable whole person care model for chronic pain. J Altern Complement Med 25(S1):S86–S94 - PubMed - PMC
Watson SL, Weeks BK, Weis LJ, Harding AT, Horan SA, Beck BR (2019) High-intensity exercise did not cause vertebral fractures and improves thoracic kyphosis in postmenopausal women with low to very low bone mass: the LIFTMOR trial. Osteoporos Int 30(5):957–964 - PubMed
Sinaki M, Mikkelsen BA (1984) Postmenopausal spinal osteoporosis: flexion versus extension exercises. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 65:593–596 - PubMed
Ekin JA, Sinaki M (1993) Vertebral compression fractures sustained during golfing: report of three cases. Mayo Clin Proc 68:566–570 - PubMed
National Osteoporosis Foundation (2019) Boning up on osteoporosis. National Osteoporosis Foundation, Arlington, VA
Watson SL, Weeks BK, Weis LJ, Harding AT, Horam SA, Beck BR (2018) High-intensity resistance and impact training improves bone mineral density and physical function in postmenopausal women with women with osteopenia and osteoporosis: the LIFTMOR randomized controlled trial. J Bone Miner Res 33(2):211–220 - PubMed
Skelton DA, Mavroeidi A (2018) Which strength and balance activities are safe and efficacious for individuals with specific challenges (osteoporosis, vertebral fractures, frailty, dementia)? 2018. J Frailty Sarcopenia Falls 3(2):85–104 - PubMed - PMC
Liu CK, Leng X, Hsu FC, Kritchevsky SB et al (2014) The impact of sarcopenia on a physical activity intervention: the Lifestyle Interventions and Independence for Elders Pilot Study (LIFE-P). J Nutr Health Aging 18(1):59–64 - PubMed - PMC
National Committee for Quality Assurance (NCQA) (2014) Report cards health plans state of health care quality 2014: osteoporosis testing in older women. Available at https://www.ncqa.org/hedis/measures/osteoporosis-management-in-women-who... Accessed January 2019
Gillespie CW, Morin PE (2017) Osteoporosis-related health services utilization following first hip fracture among a cohort of privately insured women in the United States: an observational study. J Bone Miner Res 32(5):1052–1061 - PubMed
Conley RB, Adib G, Adler RA et al (2020) Secondary fracture prevention: consensus clinical recommendations from a multistakeholder coalition. J Bone Miner Res 35(1):36–52 - PubMed
Boudreau DM, Yu O, Balasubramanian A et al (2017) A survey of women’s awareness of and reasons for lack of postfracture osteoporotic care. J Am Geriatr Soc 65(8):1829–1835 - PubMed
Schuit SC, van der Klift M, Weel AE et al (2004) Fracture incidence and association with bone mineral density in elderly men and women: the Rotterdam Study. Bone 34:195–202 (Erratum in: Bone. 2006;38:603) - PubMed
Åkesson K, Marsh D, Mitchell PJ et al. IOF Fracture Working Group (2013) Capture the fracture: a best practice framework and global campaign to break the fragility fracture cycle. Osteoporos Int 24(8):2135-2152
Eisman JA, Bogoch ER, Dell R et al. ASBMR Task Force on Secondary Fracture Prevention (2012) Making the first fracture the last fracture: ASBMR task-force report on secondary fracture prevention. J Bone Miner Res 27(10):2039–2046
Bunta AD, Edwards BJ, Macaulay WB Jr et al (2016) Own the Bone, a system-based intervention, improves osteoporosis care after fragility fractures. J Bone Joint Surg Am 98(24):e109 - PubMed - PMC
Lewiecki EM, Binkley NC, Bilezikian JP (2018) Treated osteoporosis is still osteoporosis. J Bone Miner Res 34(4):3671

The clinician's guide to prevention and treatment of osteoporosis (vitamin D is mentioned) – April 2022

Table of contents